Policy Type: Statement

Adopted by the 50th World Medical Assembly, Ottawa, Canada, October 1998,
reaffirmed by the 59th WMA General Assembly, Seoul, Korea, October 2008,
revised by the 61st WMA General Assembly, Vancouver, Canada, October 2010,
and by the 72nd WMA General Assembly (online), London, United Kingdom, October 2021
and reaffirmed with minor revision by the 232nd WMA Council session, Belgrade, Serbia, April 2026 

 

PREAMBLE

For the purpose of this Statement, in line with the International Organisation for Migration index, “migrant” is an umbrella term reflecting the common lay understanding of a person who moves away from his or her place of usual residence, whether within a country or across an international border, temporarily or permanently, and for a variety of reasons.

The WMA considers health to be a basic need, a human right, and one of the essential drivers of economic and social development.

According to the World Health Organisation, universal access to health implies that all people and communities have access to comprehensive health services, without barriers or discrimination, according to their needs, within the framework of equitable and supportive health systems.

Recalling the WMA Declaration of Geneva, the WMA underlines every physician’s duty to not permit considerations of age, disease or disability, creed, ethnic origin, gender, nationality, political affiliation, race, sexual orientation, social standing or any other factor to interfere with the physician’s duty to his or her patient.

The WMA underlines that physicians should offer help in medical emergencies in accordance with the WMA International Code of Medical Ethics.

Taking into account the WMA Declaration of Ottawa on Child Healthand the WMA Statement on Medical Age Assessment of Unaccompanied Minor Asylum Seekers, the WMA reiterates that children should enjoy special protection, including the right to adequate health care without discrimination.

These fundamental WMA principles also echo the principles laid down in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

The WMA Declaration of Lisbon on the Rights of the Patient declares that every person is entitled without discrimination to appropriate medical care. However, national legislation varies and is often not in accordance with this fundamental principle.

At any time, large numbers of migrants are seeking protection, fleeing from natural disasters, desperate poverty, violence and other injustices and abuses with potentially very harmful effects to mental and physical health.

Recalling the WMA statement on Armed Conflicts and the WMA declaration on Health and Climate Change, the WMA recognizes that climate change, natural disasters, warfare, armed conflicts and other emergencies, including continuous civil strife, unrest and violence, will inevitably lead to the displacement of people from their homes.

The WMA is concerned by the precarious situation of certain categories of migrants, such as refugees, asylum seekers, refused asylum seekers, undocumented migrants and displaced persons, whose access to health care is often undermined, and where physicians are required in some countries to intervene outside the scope of their medical duty, in contradiction with medical ethics.

Precarious situations fuel fear among patients and physicians alike. When people are reluctant to seek medical attention for themselves or their families due to concerns related to their legal or administrative status, it threatens their health, impedes the ability of physicians to render care, and ultimately undermines fundamental trust in health care institutions. To fulfill their oath and best serve patients, physicians must be able to work in spaces that create a sense of safety for all, not fear for the most vulnerable.

Bearing in mind the above-mentioned principles, international conventions and WMA policies, the WMA advocates a strong and continued engagement of physicians in the defence of human rights and dignity of all people including migrants worldwide, while making the following recommendations for its constituent members and individual physicians:

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

WMA constituent members should:

1.Prioritize the medical care of human beings above any other personal, material, economic, or political interest.

2. Actively support and promote the right of all people to receive medical care on the basis of clinical need alone and speak out against legislation and practices that contradict this fundamental right.

3. Call on governments to:

  • Reach political agreements that facilitate the availability of sufficient resources for the delivery of adequate and coordinated health services to migrant populations, including in refugee camps where the conditions of living make them more susceptible to the spread of disease and viruses.
  • Ensure access to safe and adequate living conditions and essential services to all migrants, even with support from the donor agencies and/or philanthropists if needed.
  • Refrain from conducting immigration enforcement activities in and around hospitals, emergency rooms, and health care settings.
  • Refrain from imposing requirements for healthcare personnel to inform authorities when treating undocumented migrants.
  • Promote equality, solidarity and social justice, guaranteeing access of migrants and refugees to health and social services.
  • Implement policies, actions and commitments that promote the health of all, without discrimination, addressing the social determinants of health related to migrants and refugees.

Physicians:

4. Have a duty to provide appropriate medical care, based solely on clinical need, regardless of the civil or political status of the patient.

5. Should speak out against legislation and practices that prevent the fulfilment of this duty.

6. Cannot be compelled to participate in any punitive or judicial action against migrants, including refugees, asylum seekers, refused asylum seekers, undocumented migrants and or displaced persons, or to withhold medically necessary treatment, or to administer any non-medically justified diagnostic measure or treatment, such as sedatives to facilitate easy deportation from the country or relocation.

7. Must be allowed adequate time and be provided with sufficient resources, including interpretation services, to assess the physical and psychological condition of migrants, including refugees, asylum seekers, refused asylum seekers, undocumented migrants and displaced persons.

 

Adopted by the 61st WMA General Assembly, Vancouver, Canada, October 2010
And amended by the 71st WMA General Assembly (online), Cordoba, Spain, October 2020

 

PREAMBLE

Violence against women is a worldwide phenomenon and includes violence within the family, within the community and violence perpetrated by or condoned by the state. Many excuses are given for violence generally and specifically; in cultural and societal terms, these include tradition, beliefs, customs, values and religion. Intimate partner violence, rape, sexual abuse and harassment, intimidation at work or in education, modern slavery, trafficking and forced prostitution, are all forms of violence condoned by some societies. One extreme form of such violence is sexual violence used as a weapon of war (United Nations Security Council Resolution 1820). Specific cultural practices that harm women, including female genital mutilation, forced marriages, dowry attacks and so-called “honour” killings are all practices that may occur within the family setting.

All human beings enjoy fundamental human rights. The examples listed above involve denial of many of those rights, and each abuse can be examined against the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000).

The denial of rights and the violence itself have health consequences to women. In addition to the specific and direct physical and health consequences, the general way in which women are treated can lead to an excess of mental health problems and increase of suicidal behavior. The short and long-term mental health consequences of violence may severely influence later wellbeing, enjoyment of life, function in society and the ability to provide appropriate care for dependents. Lack of good nutritional opportunities can lead to generations of women with poorer health, poorer growth and development. Denial of educational opportunities leads to poorer health for all the family members since good education of women is a major factor in the wellbeing of the family.

In addition to being unacceptable in and of itself, violence against women is also socially and economically damaging to the family and to society. There are direct and indirect economic consequences to violence against women that are far greater than the direct health sector costs. Lack of economic independence, and of basic education, also mean that women who survive abuse are more likely to be or to become dependent upon the state or society and less able to support themselves and contribute to that society.

Physicians have a unique insight into the combined effects of violence against women. The holistic view from physicians can be used to influence society and politicians. Gaining societal support for improving the rights, freedom and status of women is essential.

This Statement alongside with other WMA key related policies, including the statements on Female Genital Mutilation, Sex Selection and Female Foeticide, Medically-indicated Termination of Pregnancy, Family Violence, Violence and Health, Child Abuse and Neglect and on the Right of Rehabilitation of Victims of Torture, provide guidance to WMA Constituent Members and physicians on ways to support women who are victims of violence, and strive for eradicating violence against women.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

The WMA:

  1. Calls for zero tolerance for all forms of violence against women.
  2. Asserts that violence against women is not only about physical, psychological and sexual violence but includes neglect and abuses such as harmful cultural and traditional practices and is a major public health issue as well as a social determinant of health.
  3. Recognizes the linkage between better education, other women’s rights and societal health and wellbeing, and emphasizes that equality in civil liberties and human rights are health-related issue.
  4. Calls on WHO, other United Nations agencies and relevant actors at national and international levels to accelerate actions towards ending discrimination and violence against women.
  5. Urges the governments to implement WHO’s Global Plan of Action to Strengthen the Role of the Health System within a National Multisectoral Response to Address Interpersonal Violence, in particular Against Women and Girls, and Against Children.
  6. Encourages the development of free educational materials online to provide guidance to front line health care personnel on abuse and its effects, and on prevention strategies.

National Medical Associations are urged to:

  1. Use and promote the available educational materials on preventing and treating the consequences of violence against women and act as advocates within their own country.
  2. Seek to ensure that physicians and other health care personnel are alerted on the phenomenon of violence, its consequences, and the evidence on preventative strategies that work, and place appropriate emphasis on this in undergraduate, graduate and continuing education.
  3. Recognise the importance of more complete reporting of violence and encourage the development of education emphasising violence awareness and prevention.
  4. Advocate for legislation against specific harmful practices including female feticide, female genital mutilation, forced marriage, and corporal punishment.
  5. Advocate for the criminalization of intimate partner violence as well as rape in all circumstances including within marriage.
  6. Advocate for the development of research data on the impact of violence and neglect upon primary and secondary victims and upon society, and for increased funding for such research.
  7. Encourage medical journals to publish more of the research on the complex interactions in this area, thus keeping it in the professions’ awareness and contributing to the development of a solid research base and ongoing documentation of types and incidence of violence.
  8. Advocate for the national implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).

Physicians are encouraged to:

  1. Use the material developed for their education to better inform themselves about the effects of violence and the successful strategies for prevention.
  2. Treat and reverse, where possible, the complications and adverse effects of female genital mutilation and refer the patient to social support services.
  3. Oppose the publication or broadcast of victims’ names or addresses without the explicit permission of the victim.
  4. Assess risk of family violence in the context of taking a routine social history of a patient.
  5. Be alert to the association between alcohol or drug dependence among women and a history of abuse.
  6. Where appropriate, report suspected violence or ill-treatment against women to relevant protection services and take the necessary measures to ensure that victims of violence are not at risk.
  7. Support global and local action to better understand the health consequences both of violence and of the denial of rights, and advocate for increased services for victims.

Adopted by the 58th WMA General Assembly, Copenhagen, Denmark, October 2007
and rescinded at the 65th WMA General Assembly, Durban, South Africa, October 2014

INTRODUCTION

The use of human cells and tissue for therapeutic purposes in medicine covers a broad spectrum. A differentiated examination is necessary in order to do justice to the different requirements of the various sectors of tissue medicine.

The use of so-called “tissue transplants”, such as corneas, bone, blood vessels and cardiac valves, is an established treatment method in medicine. Tissues are removed, conserved, stored and then implanted in patients after varying periods of time. In principle, they should therefore be treated in the same way as organs that are used for transplantation (cf. WMA Statement on Human Organ and Tissue Donation and Transplantation, Edinburgh 2000).

In contrast, so-called “advanced therapies”, such as tissue engineering and other techniques of regenerative medicine, involve the use of human tissue as starting material for manufacturing a processed end product. Even though established therapeutic options already exist, it can be expected that the therapeutic importance of these methods may continue to increase, and that there may be many developments in this field in the future. In view of the further processing of the tissue involved, the frequently industrial nature of the manufacturing organizations and the possibility of tissue being pooled, different regulations are necessary for this sector of tissue medicine than for tissue transplantation.

The WMA limits this Statement to tissue in the sense of tissue transplants, and gives the following Recommendations for this sector of tissue medicine:

  1. Physicians are fundamentally obliged to treat patients according to the best of their knowledge and expertise. However, this obligation must not be taken to the point where, for example, the human tissue necessary for therapy is procured in an unethical or illegal manner. Tissue must always be procured with due consideration for human rights and the principles of medical ethics.
  2. To secure the provision of tissue for transplantation, physicians should inform potential donors and/or their family members about the possibility of tissue donation. In the event of combined organ and tissue donation, information should be provided, and consent obtained, in one step.
  3. The voluntariness of tissue donation must be ensured. The informed and non-coerced consent of the donor or his/her family members is required for any use of human tissue for transplantation. Free and informed decision-making is a process requiring the exchange and understanding of information and the absence of coercion. Because prisoners and other individuals in custody are not in a position to give consent freely and can be subject to coercion, their tissues must not be used for transplantation except for members of their immediate family.
  4. Financial incentives such as direct payments for donating tissue for transplantation are to be rejected – in the same what that they are in connection with organ transplants. All other steps, such as the procurement, testing, processing, conservation, storage and allocation of tissue transplants, should likewise not be commercialised.
  5. If both organs and tissue can be removed from a potential donor for transplantation, organ donation must be given priority over tissue donation.
  6. Posthumous donation of tissue to a specific recipient (directed donation beyond the immediate family) is to be avoided. Living directed donation requires both:a) proof of direct personal ties between donor and recipient (e.g. blood relations, spouses), andb) exclusion of potentially coercive  material interests.
  7. For posthumous tissue donation, the WMA calls for the determination of death to be conducted in accordance with its Declaration of Sydney on the Determination of Death.
  8. The risk of diseases (e.g. infections, malignant tumors) being transmitted by transplanted tissue must be minimized through appropriate testing that does not merely comply with sufficient standards, but additionally reflects the respective, nationally implemented state of medical science and technology.
  9. In the case of a delayed diagnosis for infectious disease or malignancy of the donor, an alert should immediately be reported to all tissue recipients in order to institute the appropriate precautionary steps
  10. Contamination must be avoided when removing, storing, processing and transplanting tissue.
  11. Unethical allocation formulas for tissue transplants are to be rejected. Allocation should be based on the medical indication, urgency and prospects of success.
  12. Experimental and clinical studies, as well as open discussions on ethical and moral principles in society, are important for establishing new therapeutic methods. All experimental and clinical studies are to be conducted in accordance with the WMA Declaration of Helsinki. Scientists and physicians should continuously inform the public about developments in tissue medicine and its therapeutic options.
  13. International exchange of tissue for transplantation should be properly regulated according to agreed upon standards.
  14. Information on tissue donors should be stored and maintained by national transplant organizations and should be provided only if the living donor or family of the deceased donor provides free and informed consent.

Adopted by the 60th WMA General Assembly, New Delhi, India, October 2009
and amended by the 71st WMA General Assembly (online), Cordoba, Spain, October 2020

PREAMBLE

The fields of stem cell research and therapy are among the fastest growing areas of biotechnology.

Stem cells can be harvested from established tissue (adult stem cells) or from the blood of the placenta via the umbilical cord. These sources may create no specific ethical dilemmas.

Stem cells can also be obtained from an embryo (embryonic stem cells). Obtaining and using these stem cells raises specific ethical questions and may be problematic for some people. Another source of stem cells valuable for research is induced pluripotent stem cells, which can be generated from adult tissues, and may in some cases be functionally equivalent to embryonic stem cells, although they are not derived from embryos.

Some jurisdictions have prohibited using embryonic stem cells. Others have allowed using so-called “spare or excess embryos” from assisted reproduction procedures for research purposes, but the production of embryos solely for research purposes may be prohibited. Other jurisdictions have no specific laws or regulations with respect to embryonic stem cells.

Human embryos are considered by some people to have a specific and special ethical status. This has generated debate amongst ethicists, philosophers, theologians, clinicians, scientists, health workers, the public and legislators.

In vitro fertilisation involves the production of embryos outside of the human body. In many cases, some of the embryos are not used to achieve pregnancies. Those not used may be donated for the treatment of others, or for research, or stored for some time and then destroyed.

Stem cells can be used to conduct research into basic developmental biology, human physiology and disease pathogenesis. There are many current research programs investigating the use of stem cells to treat human disease. Adult stem cell therapies, including using bone marrow, cord blood or blood-derived stem cells for transplantation, include several important and well-validated clinical advances. In contrast, clinical studies have not yet validated the use of embryonic stem cells in therapy.

Embryonic stem cells may at times be superior to induced pluripotent stem cells for certain applications, and research with embryonic stem cells may continue to be needed. Some experts anticipate future use of a variety of therapies based on stem cells, including transplants of genetically matched tissue. It is too early to assess the likelihood of success of any specific therapy based on stem cells.

Public views of stem cell research are as varied as those of doctors and scientists.  Much public debate centers on concerns of abuse of the technology and the potential for harm in recipients, and specific concerns continue to be raised about the use of embryos. Investigational stem cell products also may pose unique risks, including unknown long-term health effects such as mutations.

Adoption of laws in accordance with established ethical principles is likely to alleviate concerns for many members of the public, especially if such laws are carefully and credibly monitored and enforced.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

  1.  Whenever possible, research should be carried out using stem cells that are not of embryonic origin. Research with stem cells from unused embryos after in vitro fertilization techniques should only be carried out if obtaining the potential results could not also be addressed with the use of other types of stem cells, including induced pluripotent stem cells. Research and other uses should be in accordance with the WMA Resolution on the Non-Commercialisation of Human Reproductive Material.
  2. All research on stem cells, regardless of stem cell type, must be carried out according to established ethical principles and with appropriate informed consent. Both established and proposed laws must conform to these principles to avoid confusion or conflicts between law and ethics.
  3. The ethical principles should, where possible, follow international agreements. Recognising that different groups have widely varying views on the use of specific stem cell types, these principles should be drafted with enough flexibility to allow different jurisdictions to appropriately regulate levels of research.

Adopted by the 60th WMA General Assembly, New Delhi, India, October 2009
and revised by the 73rd WMA General Assembly, Berlin, Germany, October 2022

 

PREAMBLE

  1. Digital health is a broad term that refers to “the use of information and communication technologies in medicine and other health professions to manage illnesses and health risks and to promote wellness.” Digital health encompasses electronic health (eHealth) and developing areas such as the use of advanced computer sciences (including ‘big data’, bioinformatics and artificial intelligence). The term also includes telehealth, telemedicine, and mobile health (mHealth).
  2. The term “digital health” may be used interchangeably with “eHealth.” These terms also include within them: Telehealth” or “Telemedicine,” which both utilize information and communications technology to deliver healthcare services and information at a distance (large or small). They are used for remote clinical services, including real-time patient monitoring such as in critical care settings. Also, they serve for patient-physician consultation where access is limited due to physicians’/patients’ schedules or preferences, or patient limitations such as physical disability. Alternatively, they can be used for consultation between two or more physicians. The difference between the two terms is that “Telehealth” refers also to remote clinical and non-clinical services: preventive health support, research, training, and continuing medical education for health professionals.
  3. Technological developments and the increasing availability and affordability of mobile devices have led to an exponential increase in the number and variety of digital health services in use in both developed and developing countries. Simultaneously, this relatively new and rapidly evolving sector remains largely unregulated, which could have potential patient safety and ethical implications.
  4. The driving force behind digital health should be improving quality of care, patient safety and equity of access to services otherwise unavailable.
  5. Digital health differs from conventional health care in the medium used, its accessibility, and its effect on the patient-physician relationship, as well as on the traditional principles of patient care.
  6. The development and application of digital health has expanded access to health care and health education in both regular and emergency situations. At the same time, its effect on the patient-physician relationship, accountability, patient safety, multistakeholder interactions, privacy and data confidentiality, fair access, and other social and ethical principles should be taken into consideration. However, the scope and application of digital health, telemedicine or telehealth are context-dependent. Factors such as human resources for health, size of service area and level of healthcare facilities should also be taken into consideration.
  7. Physicians should be involved in the development and implementation of digital health solutions to be used in health care, in order to ensure they meet the needs of patients and health professionals.
  8. Consistent with the mandate of the WMA, this statement is addressed primarily to physicians and their role in the health care setting. The WMA encourages others who are involved in healthcare to develop and adhere to similar principles, as appropriate to their role in the healthcare system.

Physician autonomy

  1. Acceptable boundaries in the patient-physician relationship necessary for the provision of optimal care, should exist in digital as well as physical practice. The nearly continuous availability of digital health care has the potential to unduly interfere with a physician’s work-life balance due to theoretical 24/7 availability. The physician should inform patients about his or her availability and recommend services when he or she is not available.
  2. Physicians should exercise their professional autonomy in deciding whether digital health consultation is appropriate. This autonomy should consider the type of visit scheduled, the physician’s comfort with the medium, and the physician’s assessment, together with the patient, of the patient’s comfort level with this type of care.

Patient-physician relationship

  1. Face to face consultation should be the gold standard where a physical examination is required to establish a diagnosis, or where there is a wish on the part of the physician or patient to communicate in person as part of establishing a trusted physician-patient relationship. Face to face consultations may be preferable in some circumstances to take stock of non-verbal cues, and for consultations where there may be communication barriers or discussion of sensitive matters. Ideally, the patient-physician relationship in the context of digital health, should be based on a previously established relationship and sufficient knowledge of the patient’s medical history.
  2. However, in emergency and critical situations, or in settings where access to doctors is not available other than via telemedicine, delivery of care via telemedicine should be prioritized even when a prior patient-physician relationship was not established. Telemedicine can be employed when a physician cannot be physically present within a safe and acceptable period. It can also be used to manage patients remotely including self-management and for chronic conditions or follow-up after initial treatment, where it has been proven to be safe and effective.
  3. The physician providing telemedicine services should be familiar with the technology and/or should receive sufficient resources, training and orientation in effective digital communication. Additionally, the physician should strive to ensure that quality of communication during a digital health encounter is maximized. It is also important that the patient is comfortable using the technology employed. Any significant technical deficiencies should be noted in the documentation of the consultation and reported, if applicable.
  4. The patient-physician relationship is based on mutual trust and respect. Therefore, the physician and the patient must identify each other reliably when telemedicine is employed. However, it must be recognized that sometimes third parties or ‘surrogates’ such as a family member should become involved in the case of minors, the frail, the elderly, or in an emergency situation.
  5. The physician should give clear and explicit direction to the patient during the telemedicine encounter regarding who has ongoing responsibility for any required follow-up and ongoing health care.
  6. In a digital consultation between two or more professionals, the primary physician remains responsible for the patient’s care and coordination.  The primary physician remains responsible for protocols, conferencing, and medical record review in all settings and circumstances. Physicians providing consultation should be able to contact other health professionals and technicians, as well as patients, in a timely manner.

Informed consent

  1. Proper informed consent requires that the patient be informed of, have capacity for, and provide consent specific to the type of digital health being used. All necessary information regarding the distinctive features of digital health, in general, and telemedicine, in particular, must be explained fully to patients including, but not limited to: how telemedicine works, how to schedule appointments, privacy concerns, the possibility of technological failure, including confidentiality breaches; possible secondary use of data; protocols for contact during virtual visits, prescribing policies and coordinating care with other health professionals.  This information should be provided clearly and understandably without coercion or undue influence of the patient’s voluntary choices, while taking into account the patient’s perceived level of health literacy and other resource limitations specific to the type of digital health being used.

Quality of care

  1. The physician must ensure the standard of care delivered via digital health is at least equivalent to any other type of care given to the patient, considering the specific context, location and timing, and relative availability of face to face care. If the standard of care cannot be satisfied via digital technology, the physician should inform the patient and suggest an alternative form of healthcare delivery.
  2. The physician should have clear and transparent protocols for delivering digital health care such as clinical practice guidelines, whenever possible, to guide the delivery of care in the digital setting, recognizing that certain modifications may need to be made to accommodate specific circumstances. Changes to clinical practice guidelines for the digital setting should be approved by the appropriate governing and/or regulatory body or association. If the digital health solution is equipped with automated clinical practice support, this support must be strictly professionally based and not influenced by economic interests in any way.
  3. The physician providing digital services should follow all regulatory requirements and relevant protocols and procedures related to informed consent (verbal, written, and recorded); privacy and confidentiality; documentation; ownership of patient records; and appropriate video/telephone behaviors.
  4. The physician providing care by means of telehealth should keep a clear and detailed record of the advice delivered, the information on which the advice was based and the patient’s informed consent.
  5. The physician should be aware of and respect the particular challenges and uncertainties that may arise when in contact with the patient through telecommunication. The physician must be prepared to recommend direct patient-physician contact whenever possible if he/she believes it is in the patient’s best interests or will improve compliance.
  6. The possibilities and weaknesses of digital health in emergencies must be duly identified. If it is necessary to use telemedicine in an emergency, the advice and treatment suggestions will be influenced by the severity of the patient’s medical condition and the patient’s technological and health literacy. To ensure patient safety, entities that deliver telemedicine services should establish protocols for referrals in emergency situations.

Clinical Outcomes

  1. Entities providing digital health programs should monitor and continuously strive to improve the quality of services to achieve the best possible outcomes.
  2. Entities providing digital health programs should have a systematic protocol for collecting, evaluating, monitoring and reporting meaningful health care outcomes, safety data and clinical effectiveness. Quality indicators should be identified and utilized. Like all health care interventions, digital technology must be tested for its effectiveness, efficiency, safety, feasibility, and cost-effectiveness. Quality assurance and improvement data should be shared to improve its equitable use.
  3. Entities implementing digital health are urged to report unintended consequences to help improve patient safety and further the overall development of the field. Countries are encouraged to implement these guiding principles in their own legislation and regulation.

Equity of care

  1. Although digital health can provide greater access to distant and underserved populations, it may also exacerbate existing inequalities due to, among other things, age, race, socioeconomic status, cultural factors, or literacy issues. Physicians must be aware that certain digital technologies might be unavailable or unaffordable to patients, impeding access and further widening the health outcomes gaps.
  2. Digital technologies should be implemented and monitored carefully to avoid inequity of access to these technologies. Where appropriate, social or healthcare services should facilitate access to technologies as part of basic benefit packages while taking all necessary precautions to guarantee data security and privacy. Access to vital technologies should not be denied to anyone based on financial status or a lack of technical expertise.

Confidentiality and data security

  1. In order to ensure data confidentiality, officially recognized data protection measures must be used. Data obtained during a digital consultation must be secured to avoid unauthorized access and breaches of identifiable patient information through appropriate and up-to-date security and privacy measures. If data breaches do occur, the patient must be notified immediately in accordance with the law.
  2. Digital health technologies generally involve the measurement or manual input of medical, physiological, lifestyle, activity, and environmental data to fulfill their primary purpose. The large amount of data generated also may be used for research or other purposes to improve healthcare and disease prevention. However, secondary uses of personal mHealth data can result in misuse and abuse.
  3. Robust policies and safeguards to regulate and secure the collection, storage, protection, and processing of digital health users’ data, especially personal health data, must be implemented to assure valid informed consent and guarantee patients’ rights.
  4. If patients believe that their privacy rights have been violated, they may file a complaint with the covered entity’s Privacy Officer or data protection authorities, in accordance with local regulations.

Legal principles

  1. A clear legal framework must be drawn up to address potential liability arising from the use of digital technologies. Physicians should only practice telemedicine in countries/jurisdictions where they are licensed to practice and should adhere to the legal framework and regulations as defined by the country/jurisdiction where the physician originates care and the countries in which they practice. Physicians should ensure that their medical indemnity includes telemedicine and digital health coverage.
  2. Reimbursement models must be set up in consultation with national medical associations and healthcare providers to ensure that physicians receive appropriate reimbursement for providing digital health services.

Specific principles of mHealth technology

  1. Mobile health (mHealth) is a form of electronic health (eHealth) for which there is no fixed definition. It has been described as medical and public health practice supported by mobile devices, such as mobile phones, patient monitoring devices, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and other devices intended to be used in connection with mobile devices. It includes voice and short messaging services (SMS), applications (apps), and the use of the global positioning system (GPS).
  2. A clear distinction must be made between mHealth technologies used for lifestyle purposes and those that require physicians’ medical expertise and meet the definition of medical devices. The latter must be appropriately regulated, and users must be able to verify the source of medical information provided, as these applications could potentially recommend non-scientific or non-evidence-based treatments. The information provided must be comprehensive, clear, reliable, non-technical, and easily understood by laypeople.
  3. Concerted work must improve the interoperability, reliability, functionality, and safety of mHealth technologies, e.g., through the development of standards and certification schemes.
  4. Comprehensive and independent evaluations must be carried out regularly by competent authorities with appropriate medical expertise to assess the functionality, limitations, data integrity, security, and privacy of mHealth technologies. This information must be made publicly available.
  5. mHealth can only positively contribute to improvements in care if services are based on sound medical rationale. As evidence of clinical usefulness is developed, findings should be published in peer-reviewed journals and be reproducible.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

  1. The WMA recognizes the value of digital health to supplement traditional ways of managing health and delivering healthcare. The driving force behind digital health should be improving quality of care and equity of access to services otherwise unavailable.
  2. The WMA emphasizes that the principles of medical ethics, as outlined in The Declaration of Geneva: The Physician’s Pledge and the International Code of Medical Ethics, must be respected in the practice of all forms of digital health.
  3. The WMA recommends that the training of digital health literacy and skills be included in medical education and continuing professional development.
  4. The WMA urges patients and physicians to be discerning in their use of digital health and to be mindful of potential risks and implications.
  5. The WMA recommends further research in digital health to assess safety, efficacy, cost-effectiveness, feasibility of implementation, and patient outcomes.
  6. The WMA recommends monitoring the risks of excessive or inappropriate use of digital health technologies and the potential psychological impact on patients and ensuring that the benefits of such technologies outweigh the risks.
  7. The WMA recommends special attention be given to patients’ disabilities (audio-visual or physical) and patients who are minors, when using digital healthcare.
  8. Where appropriate, National Medical Associations should encourage the development and update of ethical norms, practice guidelines, national legislation, and international agreements on digital health.
  9. The WMA recommends that other regulatory bodies, professional societies, organizations, institutions, and private industry, monitor the proper use of digital health technologies and share these findings widely.

 

 

 

Adopted by the 55th WMA General Assembly, Tokyo, Japan, October 2004,
amended by the 60th WMA General Assembly, New Delhi, India, October 2009
and by the 71st WMA General Assembly (online), Cordoba, Spain, October 2020

PREAMBLE

In the treatment of their patients, physicians use medicines, instruments, diagnostic tools, equipment and materials developed and produced by commercial enterprises. Industry possesses resources to finance expensive research and development programmes, for which the knowledge and experience of physicians are essential. Moreover, industry support enables the progress of medical research, scientific conferences and continuing medical education that can be of benefit to patients and the entire health care system. The combination of financial resources and product knowledge contributed by industry and the medical knowledge possessed by physicians enables the development of new diagnostic procedures, drugs, therapies, and treatments and can lead to great advances in medicine.

However, conflicts of interest between commercial enterprises and physicians occur and can affect the care of patients as well as the reputation of the medical profession. The duty of the physician is to objectively evaluate what is best for the patient and to promote the patient-physician relationship, while commercial enterprises are expected to bring profit to owners by selling their own products and competing for customers. Commercial considerations can affect the physician’s objectivity, especially if the physician is in any way dependent on the enterprise.

Rather than forbidding any relationships between physicians and industry, it is preferable to establish guidelines for such relationships. These guidelines must incorporate the key principles of disclosure, transparency, avoidance of conflicts of interest and promoting the physician’s ability to act in the best interests of patients.

The guidelines regulating the Physician-Commercial Enterprise relationship should be understood in the light of WMA core ethical values, as stated in particular in the Declaration of Geneva, the International Code of Medical Ethics. the Statement on Conflict of Interest, and the Declaration of Seoul on Professional Autonomy and Clinical Independence.

The autonomy and clinical independence of physicians should be foremost in all physician decisions for patients, regardless of practice setting, whether government-sponsored, private, for profit or not for profit, investor funded, insurance company employers or otherwise.

Curricula of medical schools and residency programs should include educational courses on the relation between enterprises and the medical profession in the light of ethical principles and values of the profession.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Medical conferences

  1. These guidelines related to medical conferences apply, where pertinent, to corporation events, such as educational events, and promotional activities including for items of medical utility, sponsored by a commercial enterprise.
  2. Physicians may attend medical conferences, sponsored in whole or in part by a commercial entity if these conform to the following principles:
    • The main purpose of the conference is the exchange of professional or scientific information for the benefit of patient care.
    • Hospitality during the conference is secondary to the professional exchange of information and does not exceed what is locally customary and generally acceptable.
    • Physicians do not receive payment directly from a commercial entity to cover travelling expenses, room and board at the conference for themselves or an accompanying person or compensation for their time unless provided for by law and/or the policy of their National Medical Association, or unless it is a reasonable honorarium for speaking at the conference.
    • The name of a commercial entity providing financial support is publicly disclosed in order to allow the medical community and the public to fairly evaluate the information presented. In addition, conference organizers and lecturers are transparent and disclose any financial affiliations that could potentially influence educational activities or any other substantial outcome that may result from the conference.
    • In accordance with the WMA Guidelines on Promotional Mass Media Appearances by Physicians, presentation of material by a physician should be scientifically accurate, give a balanced review of possible treatment options, and not be influenced by the sponsoring organization.
  1. In addition, a conference can be recognized for purposes of continuing medical education/ continuing professional development (CME/CPD) only if it conforms to the following principles:
    • The commercial entities acting as sponsors, such as pharmaceutical companies or enterprises in the medical devices sector, have no influence on the content, presentation, choice of lecturers, or publication of results.
    • Funding for the conference is accepted only as a contribution to the general costs of the meeting.
    • The independence of the contents of the conference is guaranteed.

Gifts

  1. To preserve the trust between patients and physicians, physicians should decline:
    • cash, cash equivalents and other gifts for personal benefit from a commercial entity
    • gifts designed to influence clinical practice, including direct prescription incentives.
  1. Physicians may accept:
    • Promotional aids provided that the gift is of minimal value and is not connected to any stipulation that the physician uses certain instruments, medications or materials or refers patients to a certain facility.
    • Cultural courtesy gifts on an infrequent basis according to local standards if the gift is of minimal value and not related to the practice of medicine.

Research

  1. A physician may carry out research funded by a commercial entity, whether individually or in an institutional setting, if it conforms to the following principles:
    • The physician is subject only to the law, the ethical principles and guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and clinical judgment when undertaking research and should guard against external pressure regarding the research results or its publications.
    • If possible, a physician or institution wishing to undertake research approaches more than one commercial source for research funds.
    • Identifiable personal information about research patients or voluntary participants is not passed to the sponsoring company without the consent of the individuals concerned.
    • A physician’s compensation for research is based on his or her time and effort and such compensation must not be connected to the results of the research.
    • The results of research are made public with the name of the sponsoring entity disclosed, along with a statement disclosing who requested the research. This applies whether the sponsorship is direct or indirect, full or partial.
    • Commercial entities allow unrestricted publication of research results.
    • Where possible, research financed by commercial enterprises should be managed by interposed, non-profit entities, such as institutes or foundations.

Affiliations with Commercial Entities

  1. A physician may not enter into an affiliation with a commercial entity, such as consulting or membership on an advisory board unless the affiliation conforms to the following principles:
    • The affiliation does not compromise the physician’s integrity.
    • The affiliation does not conflict with the physician’s obligations to his or her patients.
    • The affiliation or other relationship with a commercial entity is fully disclosed in all relevant situations, such as lectures, personal appearances, articles, reports and influential contributions to the mission of medical associations or other non-profit health entities.

Adopted by the 51st World Medical Assembly, Tel Aviv, Israel, October 1999,
revised by the 60th WMA General Assembly, New Delhi, India, October 2009
and reaffirmed by the 212th WMA Council Session, Santiago, Chile, April 2019

 

PREAMBLE

1. Under the law of some jurisdictions medical procedures are patentable. Patents on medical procedures are often called medical procedure patents. A medical procedure patent or patent claim is one that only confers rights over procedural steps and does not confer rights over any new devices.

2. Over 80 countries prohibit medical procedure patents. The practice of excluding medical procedures from patentability is consistent with the Uruguay Round of Amendments to the General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of International Property Rights (GATT-TRIPs), which states: “Members may also exclude from patentability: (a) diagnostic, therapeutic and surgical methods for the treatment of humans or animals” (Article 27).

3. The purpose of patents is to encourage private investment in research and development. However, physicians, particularly those who work in research institutions, already have incentives to innovate and improve their skills. These incentives include professional reputation, professional advancement, and ethical and legal obligations to provide competent medical care (International Code of Medical Ethics, 17.A). Physicians are already paid for these activities, and public funding is sometimes available for medical research. The argument that patents are necessary to spur invention of medical procedures, and that without procedure there would be fewer beneficial medical procedures for patients, is not particularly persuasive when these other incentives and financing mechanisms are available.

4. Another argument is that patents are necessary, not so much for invention but for product development. This argument also is not persuasive in the case of medical procedure patents. Unlike device development, which requires investment in engineers, production processes, and factories, development of medical procedures consists of physicians attaining and perfecting manual and intellectual skills. As discussed above, physicians already have both obligations to engage in these professional activities as well as rewards for doing so.

5. Whether or not it is ethical to patent medical devices does not bear directly on whether it is ethical for physicians to patent medical procedures. Devices are manufactured and disseminated by companies, whereas medical procedures are “produced and disseminated” by physicians. Physicians have ethical or legal obligations to patients and professional obligations towards each other, which companies do not have. Having particular ethical obligations is part of what defines medicine as a profession.

7. There is no a priori reason to believe that those holding medical procedure patents would make patented medical procedures widely available. Patentees might attempt to maximize their profits by making the procedure widely available through nonexclusive licensing with low fees. Alternatively, they might attempt to maximize profits by limiting availability of the procedure and charging higher prices to those for whom the procedure is extremely important and who have the means to pay.

8. Competition between organizations providing health care could provide incentives for some organizations to negotiate exclusive licenses, or licenses which sharply limit who else could practice the procedure. Such a license might provide the organization with an advantage in attracting patients, if the organization could advertise that it was the only organization in a region which could provide a particularly desirable service. Thus, at least some of the time patentees will probably limit access to patented medical procedures.

9. Medical procedure patents may negatively affect patient care. If medical procedure patents are obtained, then patients’ access to necessary medical treatments might diminish and thereby undermine the quality of medical care. Access could diminish for the following reasons:

  • the cost of medical practice would likely increase because of licensing and royalty fees, and because the cost of physicians’ insurance would likely increase to cover patent litigation expenses.
  • some physicians capable of performing the patented procedure might not obtain licenses to perform it. The number of licensed physicians might be restricted because certain physicians cannot or will not pay the licensing fees or royalties, or because the patentee refuses to make the license widely available. Limiting the number of licenses would, in some circumstances, limit patients’ choice of physicians.
  • The presence of patents may prevent physicians from undertaking even those procedures which do not infringe. It may also deter a physician from introducing new or modified procedures into his or her practice. Devices can be labelled if they are patented, but procedures cannot, and therefore it is not immediately obvious whether what one is doing infringes somebody else’s medical procedure patent. However, lack of knowledge is no defence against patent infringement, so if a physician is uncertain he or she may simply refrain from performing the procedure.

10. Enforcement of medical procedure patents can also result in invasion of patients’ privacy or in the undermining of physicians’ ethical obligation to maintain the confidentiality of patients’ medical information. Where physicians practice in small groups or as sole practitioners, the most expedient methods for a patentee to identify instances of infringement might be to look through patients’ medical records or to interview patients. Removing obvious identifiers for the record review would not guarantee confidentiality, because identity can often be “reconstructed” with very few pieces of information. This would be particularly true in small towns or small practices.

11. Physicians have ethical obligations both to teach skills and techniques to their colleagues, and to continuously learn and update their own skills. Medical procedure patents can undermine these obligations. Once a patent has issued on a procedure, the procedure would be fully disclosed (this is one requirement for obtaining a patent); however, those without licenses would not be able to practice it. Limiting who can practice the procedure undermines the spirit of the ethical mandate to teach and disseminate knowledge. It also undermines the obligation to update one’s skills, because it does not do much good to acquire skills which cannot be used legally.

12. The obligation to teach and impart skills may also be impaired if the possibility of patents causes physicians to delay publishing new results or presenting them at conferences. Physicians may be inclined to keep new techniques secret while waiting to complete a patent application. This is because public use of a procedure, or publication of a description of the procedure, prior to applying for a patent may invalidate the application.

13. Physicians also have an ethical obligation not to permit profit motives to influence their free and independent medical judgment (International Code of Medical Ethics, 17.A). For physicians to pursue, obtain, or enforce medical procedure patents could violate this requirement. Physicians holding patents or licenses for procedures might advocate for the use of those procedures even when they are not indicated, or not the best procedure under the circumstances. Physicians who are not licensed to perform a particular procedure might advocate against that procedure, even when it is the best procedure under the circumstances.

14. Finally, physicians’ professional obligations to practice their profession with conscience and dignity (Declaration of Geneva) might be violated by the enforcement of medical procedure patents. The spectacle of physicians suing each other on a regular basis is unlikely to enhance the standing of the profession.

POSITION

15. The World Medical Association

  • states that physicians have an ethical responsibility to make relevant scientific information available to colleagues and the public, when possible.
  • states that the patenting of medical procedures poses serious risks to the effective practice of medicine by potentially limiting the availability of new procedures to patients.
  • considers that the patenting of medical procedures is unethical and contrary to the values of the medical profession that should guide physicians’ service to their patients and relations with their colleagues.
  • encourages national medical associations to make every effort to protect physicians’ incentives to advance medical knowledge and develop new medical procedures.

Adopted by the 60th WMA General Assembly, New Delhi, India, October 2009
and rescinded and archived by the 71st WMA General Assembly (online), Cordoba, Spain, October 2020

PREAMBLE

For over 150 years, the existence of health inequality has been acknowledged worldwide. The recently published Final Report of the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health  has highlighted the critical importance of health equity to the health, economy and social cohesiveness of all countries. It is clear that while there are major differences between countries, especially between the developing and developed countries, there are also substantial disparities within countries with respect to various measures of socio-economic and cultural diversity. Disparities in health can be defined as either disparities in access to healthcare, disparities in quality of care received, or both. The differences manifest themselves in a wide variety of health measures, such as life expectancy, infant mortality, and childhood mortality. Particularly disturbing is evidence of the gradual and ongoing widening of specific disparities.

At the core of this issue is the healthcare provided by physicians. National medical associations should take an active role in combating social and health inequalities in order to allow their physician members the ability to provide equal, quality service to all.

The Role of the Health Care System:

While the major causes of health disparities lie in the socio-economic and cultural diversity of population groups, there is a very significant role for the health care system in their prevention and reduction. This role can be summarized as follows:

  • To prevent the health effects of socio-economic and cultural inequality and inequity – especially by health promotion and disease prevention activities (Primary Prevention)
  • To Identify, treat and reduce existing health inequality, e.g. early diagnosis of disease, quality management of chronic disease, rehabilitation (Secondary and Tertiary Prevention).

RECOMMENDATIONS

The members of the medical profession, faced with treating the results of this inequity, have a major responsibility and call on their national medical associations to:

  • Recognize the importance of health inequality and the need to influence national policy and action for its prevention and reduction
  • Identify the social and cultural risk factors to which patients and families are exposed and to plan clinical activities (diagnostic and treatment) to counter their consequences.
  • Advocate for the abolishment of financial barriers to obtaining needed medical care.
  • Advocate for equal access for all to health care services irrespective of geographic, social, age, gender, religious, ethnic and economic differences or sexual orientation.
  • Require the inclusion of health inequality studies (including the scope, severity, causes, health, economic and social implications) as well as the provision of cultural competence tools, at all levels of academic medical training, including further training for those already in clinical practice.

Adopted by the 48th WMA General Assembly, Somerset West, South Africa, October 1996,
revised by the 59th WMA General Assembly, Seoul, Korea, October 2008 and
by the 70th WMA General Assembly, Tbilisi, Georgia, October 2019

 

PREAMBLE

AMR is a growing threat to global public health that transcends national boundaries and socioeconomic divisions. AMR affects human, animal and environmental health. It is a multi-faceted problem of crisis proportions with significant economic, health, and human implications.

Addressing the threat of antimicrobial resistance is a fundamental global health priority, and the responsibility of all countries.

Antimicrobial drugs form an essential component of modern medicine, ensuring that complex procedures, such as surgery and chemotherapy, can be performed with lower risk.

AMR threatens the effective prevention and treatment of an increasing range of infections caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi.

AMR occurs when microorganisms develop the ability to resist the actions of antimicrobial drugs (such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintics).

Infections caused by bacteria that are resistant to multiple classes of antibiotic are increasingly being documented.

While AMR is a natural evolutionary phenomenon, it is exacerbated by the overuse and misuse of antimicrobials in medicine, as well as in veterinary practice and agriculture, and can be exacerbated when antimicrobials are given as growth promoters in animals or used to prevent diseases in healthy animals.

The emergence and spread of AMR is further enhanced by lack of access to effective drugs, access to antibiotics “over the counter” in some countries, the availability of substandard and falsified products, misuse of antibiotics in food production, increased global travel, medical tourism and trade, and the poor application of infection control measures.

Another major cause of AMR is the release of antibiotics into the environment. This can occur as either as a result of poor manufacturing practices, the improper disposal of unused medication, human and animal excretion, and the inadequate disposal of human and animal corpses.

In many countries, particularly in low-and middle-income countries, access to effective antimicrobials as well as complementary technologies including vaccines and diagnostics continues to remain a significant challenge, furthering AMR.

The ramifications of resistance manifest themselves not just in the impact on human health, but also in potentially heavy economic costs. The World Health Organization (WHO) has warned that resistance has reached alarming levels in many parts of the world, and that a continued increase in resistance could lead to 10 million people dying per year and a reduction of 2-3.5% in global gross domestic product by 2050.

At the rate at which resistance is growing globally, it poses a significant threat to successfully achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals and undermines efforts to reduce health inequalities. Without harmonized and coordinated cross-sector action on a global, scale, the world is heading towards a post-antibiotic era in which common infections and minor injuries can once again kill.

AMR has reached great prominence at the highest political levels including the UN General Assembly, and the agenda of the G7 and G20.

There is a need for an effective ‘one health’ approach to minimize unnecessary or inappropriate use of antimicrobials and to prevent and control the transmission of existing resistance. A ‘one health’ approach recognizes that action is required across human medicine, veterinary practice and agriculture.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

Global

  1. The primary prevention of community and healthcare associated infections is necessary to reduce the demand for antibiotics. Addressing the social determinants of infectious disease, such as poor living conditions and sanitation, will have co-benefits of reducing health inequalities and tackling AMR.
  2. Nations have varying resources available to combat antimicrobial resistance, and must cooperate with the WHO, Food and Agriculture Organization and World Organization for Animal Health that support the WHO Global Action Plan on AMR which provides the framework for national action plans.
  3. The World Medical Association and its constituent members should advocate for:
    • investment in the surveillance of drug resistant infections across human health, veterinary medicine, agriculture, fishing industry, and food production, and international cooperation for data-sharing procedures to improve global responses;
    • the WHO and other UN agencies should examine the role of international travel and trade agreements on the development of antimicrobial resistance, and promote measures in those agreements to act as safeguards against the globalisation of drug resistant pathogens in our food supply;
    • the WHO should continue to encourage the use of Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) flexibilities to help ensure affordable access to quality medicines and oppose the proliferation of ‘TRIPS-plus’ provisions within trade agreements, which restrict the use of TRIPS flexibilities and limit their effectiveness;
    • the widespread application of verifiable technology such as track-and-trace systems to ensure the authenticity of pharmaceutical products;
    • equitable access to, and appropriate use of, existing and new quality-assured antimicrobial medicines. This requires effectively applying the Access, Watch and Reserve lists of the WHO Essential Medicines program. For the WHO global action plan and national action plans to be effective, access to health facilities, health care professionals, veterinarians, knowledge, education and information are vital;
    • greater use of vaccinations which will reduce the burden of infectious disease, reducing the need for antibiotics and therefore limiting the emergence of resistance;
    • for global health organisations and governments to scale up their action and coordination in promoting appropriate antibiotic use and work together to reduce AMR using a One Health approach, which recognises that human, animal and environmental health is inextricably linked. to reduce the spread of resistance.
  4. The World Medical Association and its constituent members should encourage their governments to:
    • fund more basic and applied research directed toward the development of innovative antimicrobial agents, diagnostic tools and vaccines (innovative antimicrobial vaccines), and on the appropriate and safe use of such therapeutic tools;
    • ensure parity between financial and technical resources towards the development of innovative antimicrobial medicines, vaccines, and diagnostics as well as innovative infection control and prevention methods across human health, veterinary, and agricultural sectors;
    • support Research and Development efforts for novel antimicrobial agents, vaccines, and rapid diagnostic methods that are needs-driven and guided by the principles outlined in the UN Declaration on AMR, adopted in September 2016, including affordability, effectiveness, efficiency, and equity;
    • initiate regulatory measures to control the environmental pollution that allows the spread of antibiotic-resistant genes across soil, water and air;
    • educate a sufficient number of clinical infectious disease specialists in every country, which is a fundamental requirement for tackling antimicrobial resistance and hospital-acquired infections.

National

  1. National medical associations should urge their governments to:
    • require that antimicrobial agents be available only through a prescription provided by healthcare professionals and/or veterinary professionals and dispensed or sold by professionals;
    • initiate national campaigns to raise awareness among the public of the harmful consequences of overuse and misuse of antibiotics. This should be supported through the introduction of national targets to raise public awareness;
    • support professional societies, civil society, and healthcare delivery systems to pilot and adopt proven behaviour change strategies to ensure appropriate use of antibiotics;
    • ensure access to appropriate and fit-for-purpose point-of-care diagnostics in hospitals and clinics to support decision making and prevent inappropriate prescribing of antibiotic;
    • mandate the collection of data on antibiotic use, prescriptions, prices, resistance patterns, and trade in both the healthcare and agricultural sectors. This data should be made publicly accessible;
    • promote effective programs of antimicrobial stewardship and training on the appropriate use of antimicrobials agents, and infection control;
    • actively pursue the development of a national surveillance system for the provision of antimicrobials and for antimicrobial resistance. Data from this system should be linked with or contributed to the WHO’s global surveillance network;
    • monitoring of antimicrobial use in food producing animals must be sufficiently granular to ensure accountability.
  2. National medical associations should:
    • encourage medical schools and continuing medical education programs to renew their efforts to educate physicians, who can in turn inform their patients, about the appropriate use of antimicrobial agents and appropriate infection control practices, including antibiotic use in the outpatient setting;
    • support the education of their members in areas of AMR, including antimicrobial stewardship, rational use of antimicrobials, and infection control measures including hand hygiene;
    • advocate for the publishing and communication of local information relating to resistance patterns, clinical guidelines and recommended treatment options for physicians;
    • in collaboration with veterinary authorities, encourage their governments to introduce regulations to reduce the use of antimicrobials in agriculture, in particular food producing animals, including restrictions on the routine use of antimicrobials for both prophylaxis and growth promotion, and on the use of classes of antimicrobial that are critically important in human medicine;
    • support regulation that prevents conflicts of interest among veterinarians, such as roles where veterinarians both prescribe and sell antibiotics;
    • consider the use of social media to educate and promote the proper use and disposal of antibiotic medications;
    • encourage parents to comply with the national recommended immunization schedules for children. Adults should also have easy access to vaccines against influenza and pneumococcal infections among others.

Local

  1. Health professionals and health systems have a vital role in preserving antimicrobial medicines.
  2. Physicians should:
    • have access to high-quality and reliable, evidence-based information free of conflict of interest and actively participate in and lead antimicrobial stewardship programs in their hospitals, clinics and communities to optimise antibiotic use;
    • raise awareness amongst their patients about antimicrobial therapy, its risks and benefits, the importance of adherence with the prescribed regimen, infection prevention practices, and the problem of AMR;
    • promote and ensure adherence hygiene measures (especially hand hygiene) and other infection prevention practices.

Adopted by the 59th WMA General Assembly, Seoul, Korea, October 2008
and reaffirmed with minor revision by the 210th WMA Council Session, Reykjavik, Iceland, October 2018

PREAMBLE

Mercury is a naturally occurring heavy metal that is a potent neurotoxin. The most likely routes of human exposure on a population basis are ingestion of methylmercury from contaminated fish. Less commonly, individuals are exposed via inhalation of inorganic mercury vapor after a spill or during a manufacturing process.

Mercury has been the ideal choice for use in medical devices that measure temperature and pressure. Therefore, a typical large hospital may have more than a hundred pounds of mercury onsite incorporated into various devices in separate locations.

Hospitals and clinics can avoid the occupational or environmental risk of mercury by using products that don’t rely on mercury-based technology. Major healthcare institutions around the world have demonstrated that safe, effective alternative products exist, and can be safely used for most situations, such as electronic thermometers, recently calibrated aneroid devices and mercury-free batteries.

Although the rationale for instituting voluntary mercury replacement initiatives is compelling from both occupational and environmental perspectives, financial considerations may ultimately motivate hospitals to undertake a mercury replacement program. Hazardous waste clean-up costs, reporting requirements for spills, disruptions in services, and staff training are costly. The cost of cleaning up one significant contamination can be substantially higher than the cost of converting to mercury-free alternatives.

By implementing a “best practices” management method for mercury use, the need for increased government regulations in the future, may be avoided. Such regulations may create costly burdens that some facilities may not be able to meet.

The World Medical Association (WMA) recalls its statement on Environmental Degradation and Sound Management of Chemicals that provides recommendations for advocacy measures and capacity building in order to tackle this issue.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are based on the urgent need to reduce both the supply and demand of mercury in the health care sector:

Global

The World Medical Association and its member national medical associations should:

  • Advocate for the United Nations and individual governments to voluntarily cooperate to implement key features of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Mercury Programme, which provides a framework for reducing the use, release, trade and risk related to mercury.
  • Enhance the activity of existing partnerships.

Regional/National

National medical associations should advocate that their governments work to reduce risks related to mercury in the environment by:

  • Reducing reliance on mercury mining in favor of environmentally-friendly sources of mercury, such as recycled mercury.
  • Developing options and scientifically sound plans for the long term safe storage of excess mercury supplies.
  • Urging Member States to ratify and implement the United Nations Minamata Convention on Mercury adopted in 2013 and designed to protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.
  • Encouraging a phase-out of mercury use in the health care sector
  • Designing and implementing regulations and/or requirements designed to significantly reduce mercury emissions from coal combustion and cement production by using specific mercury emission controls.

Local

Physicians should:

  • Explore eliminating mercury-containing products in their offices and clinical practices, including thermometers, sphygmomanometers, gastrointestinal tubes, batteries, lamps, electrical supplies, thermostats, pressure gauges, and other laboratory reagents and devices.
  • Ensure that local hospitals and medical facilities have a plan to identify sources of mercury in their workplace, a commitment to mercury reduction, and a mercury management policy regarding recycling, disposal and education.
  • Encourage local hospitals and medical facilities to phase out mercury-containing products and switch to non-mercury equivalents.
  • Counsel patients about local and national advisories related to fish consumption designed to limit exposure to mercury in children and women of childbearing age.

Adopted by the 59th WMA General Assembly, Seoul, Korea, October 2008
and revised by the 70th WMA General Assembly, Tbilisi, Georgia, October 2019

 

PREAMBLE

Dietary table salt is an ionic compound comprising of sodium chloride, which is 40% sodium (Na+) and 60% chloride (Cl-). There is overwhelming evidence that excessive sodium intake is a risk factor for the development, or worsening of hypertension, which is one of the main cardiovascular risk factors. Hypertension may also be an independent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases as well as all-cause mortality. The effect of dietary sodium on blood pressure is influenced by various demographic factors such as age and ethnicity.

Salt intake is also a risk factor for gastric cancer [1].

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that average daily sodium consumption in adults (≥16 years of age) should be less than 2000 mg (5 g salt). For children (2–15 years of age), the adult intake limit of 2 g/day sodium should be adjusted downward based on the energy requirements of children relative to those of adults [2].

The majority of the world’s population consumes too much sodium – 3.95 (3.89–4.01) g/day, equivalent to table salt level of 10.06 (9.88–10.21) g/day. These consumption levels are far above the recommended limit [3].

The main source of sodium is dietary consumption, 90% of it in the form of salt [4], as added salt during cooking or eating, or in processed foods such as canned soups, condiments, commercial meals, baking soda, processed meats (such as ham, bacon, bologna), cheese, snacks, and instant noodles, among others. In higher-income countries sodium added during food processing can be as high as 75%-80% of total salt intake [5].

The Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Disease (NCDs) 2013-2020 is made up of 9 global targets, including a 30 % relative reduction in mean population intake of sodium. The WHO has created the S.H.A.K.E technical package to assist Member States with the development, implementation and monitoring of salt reduction strategies.

The WHO recognises that while salt reduction is recommended globally, there is concern that iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) may re-emerge as iodized salt is the main vehicle for dietary iodine intake through fortification. Therefore the WHO, in recognition of the importance of both sodium reduction and iodine fortification, urges that efforts of the two programs be coordinated [6].

Substantial overall benefits can result from even small reductions in the population’s blood pressure. Population-wide efforts to reduce dietary sodium intake are a cost-effective way to reduce overall hypertension levels and subsequent cardiovascular disease. Evidence shows that keeping sodium consumption within the reference level could prevent an estimated premature 2.5 million deaths each year globally [7].

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. WMA and its Constituent Members should:

a. Urge governments to recognise that salt consumption is a serious public health problem and prioritise prevention as an equitable, cost effective and lifesaving population-wide approach to address high sodium intake and the associated high burden of cardiovascular diseases.

b. Work in cooperation with national and international health organisations to educate consumers from childhood about the effects of excessive sodium intake on hypertension and cardiovascular disease, the benefits of long-term reductions in sodium intake, and about the dietary sources of salt/sodium and how these can be reduced.

c. Urge the governments and other stakeholders work together to achieve the targets set in the Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs 2013-2020.

d. Recognise the critical role of the food processing and food services industry in reducing dietary sodium, and support regulatory efforts involving mandatory targets in food processing, sodium content of foodstuffs, and clear labelling. Food reformulation efforts must target food products that are most commonly consumed in the population.

2. Constituent members of WMA should:

a. Encourage their governments strictly to enforce laws regulating the sodium content in processed foods.

b. Embrace a multi stakeholder approach in working towards reducing the consumption of excessive sodium by the population, including active promotion of physician awareness regarding the effects of excessive dietary sodium.

c. Recognise that sodium reduction and salt iodization programmes need to be compatible and support sodium reduction strategies that do not compromise dietary iodine content, or increase or worsen iodine deficiency disorders, especially in low income settings.

d. Contribute to making the public aware of the potential consequences of low iodine levels as a result of restricted iodized salt intake.

e. Encourage their members to contribute to scientific research on sodium reduction strategies.

f. Encourage the initiation of food labeling, media campaigns and population-wide policies such as mandatory reformulation to achieve larger reductions in population-wide salt consumption than individually focused interventions.

3. Individual physicians should:

Counsel patients about the major sources of sodium in their diets and how to reduce sodium intake, including reducing the amount of salt used in cooking at home, use of salt substitutes, and addressing any relevant local practices and beliefs that contribute to high sodium intake.

 

References:

[1] World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. Washington DC: AICR, 2007.

[2] Guideline: Sodium intake for adults and children. Geneva, World Health Organization (WHO), 2012.

[3] Mozaffarian, Dariush, Fahimi, Saman, Singh, Gitanjali M., Micha, Renata, Khatibzadeh, Shahab, Engell, Rebecca E., Lim, Stephen, Danaei, Goodarz, Ezzati, Majid and Powles, John (2014) Global sodium consumption and death from cardiovascular causes. New England Journal of Medicine, 371 7: 624-634. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1304127.

[4] J. He, N.R.C. Campbell, G.A. MacGregor. Reducing salt intake to prevent hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Rev. Panam. Salud Publica, 32 (4) (2012), pp. 293-300.

[5] World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe Mapping salt reduction initiatives in the WHO European Region (Web. 10 May 2014.) http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/186462/Mapping-salt-reduction-initiatives-in-the-WHO-European-Region.pdf (2013).

[6] Salt reduction and iodine fortification strategies in public health. 2014. http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/publichealth_saltreduc_iodine_fortification/en/.

[7] McLaren L, Sumar N, Barberio AM, Trieu K, Lorenzetti DL, Tarasuk V, Webster J, Campbell NRC.Population-level interventions in government jurisdictions for dietary sodium reduction. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 9. Art. No.: CD010166. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010166.pub2.

Adopted by the 44th World Medical Assembly, Marbella, Spain, September 1992,
Amended by the 58th WMA General Assembly, Copenhagen, Denmark, October 2007
And reaffirmed with minor revision by the 207th WMA Council session, Chicago, United States, October 2017

 

PREAMBLE

Given growing environmental awareness and knowledge of the impact of noise on health, the psyche, performance and well-being, environmental noise is becoming a serious public health threat. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes noise as the principal environmental nuisance in industrial nations.

Noise affects people in various ways. Its effects relate to hearing, the vegetative nervous system, the psyche, spoken communication, sleep and performance. Since noise acts as a stressor, an increased burden on the body leads to higher energy consumption and greater wear. It is thus suspected that noise can primarily favour diseases in which stress plays a contributory role, such as cardiovascular diseases, which can then be manifested in the form of hypertension, myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, or even apoplexy.

The effects in the psychosocial field are likewise dramatic. The stress caused by environmental noise is a central concern, not only in the industrial nations, but increasingly also in the developing countries. Owing to the continuous and massive growth of traffic volumes, both on the roads and in the air, the stress caused by environmental noise has increased steadily in terms of both its duration and the area affected.

Similarly, occupational noise generates increasingly work-related hearing impairment.

Damage to hearing caused by leisure-time noise is also of growing concern. The most common source of noise in this context is music, to which the ear is exposed by different audio media at different places (portable music players, stereo systems, discotheques, concerts). The risk of suffering hearing damage is underestimated by most people, or even consciously denied. The greatest issue (or aspect) lies in creating awareness of the problem in the high-risk group – which generally means young people. In this respect, the legislature is called upon to intervene and reduce the potential for damage by introducing sound level limiters in audio playback units and maximum permissible sound levels at music events, or by banning children’s toys that are excessively loud or produce excessive noise levels.

In keeping with its socio-medical commitment, the World Medical Association is issuing a statement on the problem of noise pollution with the aim of making a contribution to the fight against environmental noise through more extensive information and more acute awareness.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The World Medical Association calls upon the National Medical Associations to:

  1. Inform the public, especially persons affected by environmental noise, as well as policy and decision makers, of the dangers of noise pollution.
  2. Call upon ministers of transport and urban planners to develop alternative concepts that are capable of countering the growing level of environmental noise pollution.
  3. Advocate appropriate statutory regulations for combating environmental noise pollution.
  4. Support enforcement of noise pollution legislation and monitor the effectiveness of control measures.
  5. Inform young people of the risks associated with listening to excessively loud music, such as that which emanates, for example, from portable music players, use of stereo systems with earphones, audio systems in cars, and attendance at rock concerts and discotheques.
  6. Prompt the educational authorities to inform pupils at an early stage regarding the effects of noise on people, how stress due to environmental noise can be counteracted, the role of the individual in contributing to noise pollution, and the risks associated with listening to excessively loud music.
  7. Provide information about risks of damage to hearing that arise in the private sector as a result of working with power tools or operating excessively loud motor vehicles.
  8. Emphasize to those individuals who are exposed to excessive levels of noise in the workplace the importance of protecting themselves against irreducible noise.
  9. Call upon the persons responsible for occupational safety and health in businesses to take further action to reduce noise emission, and mandate access to physical hearing protection in high risk occupations, in order to ensure protection of the health of employees at the workplace.

Adopted by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and revised by the 67th WMA General Assembly, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2016 

 

PREAMBLE

Opiate and psychotropic drugs are valuable therapeutic tools when used as medically indicated for a variety of symptoms and conditions. Indeed, the WMA has called for the greater provision of pain management treatment in its Resolution on the Access to Adequate Pain Treatment (Montevideo, Uruguay, October 2011). Unfortunately, non-clinical misuse of these addictive substances is an enormous problem worldwide. Drug addiction is a complex social, economic and legal issue as well as a threat to public health and safety globally. It affects people from all demographic and social groups and economic spheres. In addition to exposing themselves to the direct health risks related to the inappropriate use of these substances, persons addicted to drugs may engage in high risk behaviour, such as needle-sharing and unprotected sex, and many resort to criminal activity to finance their expensive addiction. These factors increase transmission of viral infections, such as Hepatitis B and C and HIV/AIDS, among both users and non-users alike. Other results of addiction include failure to maintain employment or to function in social and family life.

The legal ramifications of non-medical drug use, which is illegal in most countries, generally do little to assist users in breaking free from their addiction. Despite the presence of drug programs in many correctional facilities, illegal substances are very often available to inmates and, in fact, some users begin their addiction in these institutions. Addressing addiction therefore falls largely to society and the health profession.

The World Medical Association, concerned by the widespread misuse of psychotropic and opiate drugs, urges physicians to prioritize this problem in the practice of medicine and to adhere to the following guidelines. 

PRINCIPLES

Responsible prescribing practices

Physicians should be aware of the addictive properties of certain psychotropic and opiate drugs. Such drugs should be prescribed with the greatest restraint, observing the strictest possible generally accepted medical indications. Physicians must take all necessary measures to ensure that they are fully informed of the effects of these drugs. This includes reviewing up-to-date research regarding dosage, potential effectiveness for the specific condition, potential side effects and pharmacological interactions and prevalence of misuse.

When such drugs are medically indicated, their use must be carefully monitored to ensure that the patient is following strict dosage instructions, timing and any other factors associated with the safe use of the particular drug. All appropriate measures must be taken to prevent the stockpiling, resale or other illicit usage of the drug.

Patients must be fully informed of all potential therapeutic and non-therapeutic effects of psychotropic and opiate drugs, including potential for addiction, and be fully involved in the decision to take them. No competent patient should be forced to take any psychotropic drug against his or her will.

Physicians should be aware of non-medical factors that may predispose patients to addiction. These may include, among others, family history, past addiction, emotional trauma, depression or other mental health conditions and peer pressure, especially among young persons.

Physicians should learn to recognize ‘drug seekers’, addicted patients who attempt to obtain psychotropic and opiate drugs under false medical pretenses. Drug seekers often consult more than one physician in an effort to obtain multiple prescriptions. In extreme cases, drug seekers may harm themselves to create symptoms to obtain a prescription. All patient conditions and symptoms should be clinically verified, to the extent possible, and meticulous records maintained regarding the patient’s drug history. If databases containing patient drug records and prescribing histories are available, they should be consulted.

When prescribing any psychotropic or opiate substance to minors, physicians must ensure that the parents or guardians of the patient are fully informed of the potential misuse of the drug and encouraged to monitor the child carefully to ensure adherence to the physician’s instructions. Parents or guardians should be informed that, in some countries, it is increasingly common for children to sell prescription drugs to their peers.

Non-drug therapy for addicts to opiate and psychotropic drugs

Physicians should be aware of all non-drug treatment options for addicts to opiate and psychotropic drugs, including inpatient and outpatient programs and therapeutic communities, in which recovering addicts live in a supportive, drug-free environment. Most treatment programs are focused on breaking the cycle of drug dependence through detoxification, counselling – including ongoing peer support – and permanent abstinence from the use of any addictive opiate or psychotropic substance, including alcohol. Some offer educational and/or vocational programs to facilitate successful reintegration into community life.

Physicians should encourage their patients to participate in drug treatment programs at the earliest possible stage of addiction.

All efforts should be made to respect the dignity and autonomy of addicted patients. Involuntary inpatient treatment of addicted persons should be a last resort, according to established guidelines and, where applicable, legal requirements.

Drug therapy for addicts to opiate drugs

In some cases, persons addicted to opiate drugs may be treated using medications that relieve withdrawal symptoms and cravings for the addictive substance without producing the ‘high’ associated with opiates. These medications also provide cross tolerance to other opioids. The objective of drug treatment is the immediate cessation of the use of opiate drugs.

Drug therapy can assist the opiate-dependent patient to function in his or her normal environment and activities while working to overcome the opiate addiction. However, it should always be part of a multi-disciplinary approach that includes proven non-drug treatment elements, such as counselling and peer support.

Drug therapy should be administered according to established evidence-based guidelines and supervised by specially trained physicians with an appropriate support team.

Awareness raising and policy development

National Medical Associations (NMAs) should engage in cross-sectoral national efforts to raise awareness of the risks associated with the abuse of opiate and psychotropic drugs and to ensure the availability of appropriate treatment options for addicted persons. NMAs should encourage their members to participate in similar programs at the community level.

NMAs should promote appropriate drug prevention programming at all levels of the educational system, recognizing that experimentation with drugs is increasingly prevalent among younger age groups.

NMAs and physicians should participate in the development of evidence-based guidelines that support a multi-disciplinary approach to the treatment of drug addiction, including harm reduction strategies such as needle exchange programmes.

NMAs should participate in the development of legal procedures relating to illegal drug use to ensure that addicted persons are recognized as entitled to receive appropriate medical and rehabilitative care, including in correctional institutions.

CONCLUSION

Physicians have an important role to play in the treatment of drug addiction, both as clinicians and as advocates for the treatment, rights and dignity of persons addicted to these harmful substances. Treatment of addiction, like treatment for any disease or condition, should be undertaken in the best interests of the patient and according to established principles of medical ethics.

Adopted by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and revised by the 67th WMA General Assembly, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2016
and rescinded and archived by the 76th WMA General Assembly, Porto, Portugal, October 2025

PREAMBLE

Obesity is one of the single most important health issues facing the world in the twenty-first century, affecting all countries and socio-economic groups and representing a serious drain on health care resources.

Obesity in children is of increasing concern and is emerging as a growing epidemic in itself.

Obesity has complex origins linked to economic and social changes in society including the obeso-genic environment within which much of the population lives.

Therefore the WMA urges physicians to use their roles as leaders to advocate for recognition by national health authorities that reduction in obesity should be a priority, with culturally and age appropriate policies involving physicians and other key stakeholders.

THE WMA RECOMMENDS THAT PHYSICIANS:

  • Lead the development of societal changes that emphasize environments which support healthy food choices and regular exercise or physical activity for all people, with a specific focus on children;
  • Individually and through medical associations, express concern that excessive television viewing and video game playing are impediments to physical activity among children and adolescents in many countries;
  • Encourage individuals to make healthy choices and guide parents in helping their children to do so;
  • Recognise the role of personal decision making and the adverse influences exerted by current environments;
  • Recognise that collection and evaluation of data can contribute to evidence based management, and should be part of routine medical screening and evaluation throughout life;
  • Encourage the development of life skills that contribute to a healthy lifestyle in all persons and to better public knowledge of healthy diets, exercise and the dangers of smoking and excess alcohol consumption;
  • Advocate for appropriately trained professionals to be placed in educational facilities, highlighting the importance of education on healthy lifestyles from an early age;
  • Contribute to the development of better assessment tools and databases to enable better targeted and evaluated interventions;
  • Ensure that obesity, its causes and management remain part of continuing professional development programmes for health care workers, including physicians;
  • Use pharmacotherapy and bariatric surgery consistent with evidence-based guidelines and an assessment of the risks and benefits associated with such therapies.

Adopted by the 52nd WMA General Assembly, Edinburgh, Scotland, October 2000,
revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006,
and rescinded at the 65th WMA General Assembly, Durban, South Africa, October 2014

A.  INTRODUCTION

  1. Advances in medical sciences, especially surgical techniques, tissue typing and immuno-suppressive drugs, have made possible a significant increase in the rates of successful transplantation of organs. In the light of these developments, there is a need for renewed reflection on ethical issues concerning organ donation and transplantation and on principles relevant to the resolution of these issues. Therefore, the World Medical Association has undertaken a review of issues and principles concerning transplantation and has developed this policy to provide guidance to medical associations, physicians and other health care providers as well as to those who develop policy and protocols bearing on these issues.
  2. This policy is based on principles of general and medical ethics. In matters of ethics, conflicts of values and principles are unavoidable; for example, there is a tension between a desire to procure organs for the purpose of providing important medical treatments on the one hand and the preservation of choice and personal liberty on the other. Applicable principles are referenced throughout this policy where they may help to clarify and make explicit the reasoning behind a given statement.

B.  PROFESSIONAL OBLIGATIONS OF PHYSICIANS

  1. The primary obligation of physicians is to their individual patients, whether they are potential donors or recipients of transplanted organs. In conjunction with this obligation physicians may also have responsibilities to the family members and close friends of their patients, for example, to seek and consider their views on organ retrieval from their deceased relative or friend. The obligation to the patient has primacy over any obligations that may exist in relationship to family members. Nevertheless, this obligation is not absolute; for example, the physician’s responsibility for the well-being of a patient who needs a transplant does not justify unethical or illegal procurement of organs.
  2. Physicians have responsibilities to society, which include promoting the fair use of resources, preventing harm and promoting health benefit for all; this may include promoting donation of organs.
  3. Transplant surgeons should attempt to ensure that the organs they transplant have been obtained in accordance with the provisions of this policy and shall refrain from transplanting organs that they know or suspect have not been procured in a legal and ethical manner.

C.  ORGAN PROCUREMENT: SOCIAL ASPECTS

  1. The WMA encourages its members to support the development of comprehensive, coordinated national strategies concerning organ procurement in consultation and cooperation with all relevant stakeholders. In developing strategy, due consideration should be given to human rights, ethical principles and medical ethics. Ethical, cultural and societal issues arising in connection with such a strategy, and with the subject of donation and transplantation in general, should be resolved, wherever possible, in an open process involving public dialogue and debate informed by sound evidence.
  2. Some types of organ transplantation have become established and important health care services. To the extent that the lack of organs is a barrier to the provision of needed treatment, the medical profession has an obligation to promote policies and protocols to procure organs for needed treatment consistent with societal values.
  3. It is important that individuals become aware of the option of donation and have the opportunity to choose whether or not to donate (e.g. facilitated choice). Awareness and choice should be facilitated in a coordinated multi-faceted approach by a variety of stakeholders and means, including media awareness and public campaigns. Physicians should provide their patients with the opportunity to make a choice with respect to organ donation, ideally in the context of an ongoing relationship with the patient and in advance of any crisis giving urgency to the choice.
  4. The WMA supports informed donor choice. National Medical Associations in countries that have adopted or are considering a policy of “presumed consent”, whereby there is a presumption that consent has been given unless there is evidence to the contrary, or “mandated choice”, whereby all persons would be required to declare whether they wish to donate, should make every effort to ensure that these policies do not diminish informed donor choice, including the patient’s right to refuse to donate.
  5. Consideration should be given to the establishment of national donor registries to collect and maintain a list of country citizens who have chosen either to donate or not to donate their organs. Any such registry must protect individual privacy and the individual’s ability to control the collection, use, disclosure of and access to his or her health information for purposes other than registration. Provisions must be in place to ensure that the decision is adequately informed and that registrants can withdraw from the registry without penalty.

D.  ORGAN PROCUREMENT AT THE INSTITUTIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL LEVELS

  1. Organ donation can be enhanced by local policies and protocols. The WMA recommends that organ procurement programmes, hospitals and other institutions in which procurement occurs should:
    1. Develop policies and protocols encouraging the procurement of organs consistent with the statements in this policy. Such policies should be consistent with physicians’ professional obligations and societal values, including free and informed decision making, privacy, and equitable access to needed medical care.
    2. Make these policies and protocols known to transplant coordinators, physicians and other health care providers in the institution.
    3. Ensure that adequate resources are available to support proper implementation of the policies and protocols.

E.  DONATION AFTER DEATH

  1. Physicians have an obligation to ensure that interactions at the bedside, including those discussions related to organ donation, are sensitive and consistent with ethical principles and with their fiduciary obligations to their patients. This is particularly so given that conditions at the bedside of dying patients are not ideal for the process of free and informed decision making. Protocols should specify that whoever approaches the patient, family members or other designated decision maker about the donation of organs should possess the appropriate combination of knowledge, skill and sensitivity for engaging in such discussions. Medical students and practising physicians should seek the necessary training for this task, and the appropriate authorities should provide the resources necessary to secure that training. It is mandatory that the person who approaches the patient or family about the donation decision not be a member of the transplant team.

F.  FREE AND INFORMED DECISION MAKING ABOUT ORGAN DONATION

  1. The WMA considers that the potential donor’s wishes are paramount. In the event that the potential donor’s wishes about donation are unknown and the potential donor has died without expressing a clear wish about donation, the family or a specified other person may serve as a substitute decision-maker and may be entitled to give or refuse permission for donation unless there are previously expressed wishes to the contrary.
  2. Evidence of the free and informed decision of the potential donor, or, where legally relevant, of the appropriate substitute decision-maker, must be ascertained before organ procurement can begin. In countries where presumed consent is the legal norm, the organ procurement process should include reasonable steps to discover whether the potential donor has opted out of donation.
  3. Success in procuring organs for transplant should not be construed as a criterion for measuring the quality of the process of free and informed decision-making. The quality of this process depends on whether the choice was adequately informed and free of coercion and not on whether the outcome is a decision to donate.
  4. Free and informed decision making is a process requiring the exchange and understanding of information and the absence of coercion. Because prisoners and other individuals in custody are not in a position to give consent freely and can be subject to coercion, their organs must not be used for transplantation except for members of their immediate family.
  5. In order for the choice to donate organs to be duly informed, prospective donors or their substitute decision makers should, if they desire, be provided with meaningful and relevant information. Normally, this will include information about:
    1. in the case of living donors, the benefits and risks of transplantation,
    2. in the case of deceased donors, procedures and definitions involved in the determination of death,
    3. testing of organs to determine their suitability for transplantation, which may reveal unsuspected health risks in the prospective donors and their families,
    4. in the case of deceased donors measures that may be required to preserve organ function until death is determined and transplantation can occur,
    5. in the case of deceased donors what will happen to the body once death has been declared,
    6. what organs they are agreeing to donate,
    7. the protocol that will be followed concerning the family in the event that the family objects to donation, and
    8. in the case of living donors, the implications of living without the donated organ.
  6. Prospective donors should be informed that families sometimes object to donation; donors should be encouraged to discuss their choice with their family to prevent conflict.
  7. Prospective donors or their substitute decision makers should be given the opportunity to ask questions about donation and should have their questions answered sensitively and intelligibly.
  8. Where the wishes of the patient are known and there is no reason to believe that the choice to donate has been coerced, has not been adequately informed, or has changed, these wishes should be carried out. This should be clarified in law, policy and protocols. Under these circumstances, families should be encouraged to respect the patient’s clearly expressed wishes.
  9. Where the wishes of the patient are unknown or there is uncertainty about the patient’s wishes, national law should prevail.
  10. Protocols for free and informed decision making should also be followed in the case of recipients of organs. Normally, this should include information about:
    1. the risks of the procedure,
    2. the likely short, medium and long-term survival, morbidity, and quality-of-life prospects,
    3. alternatives to transplantation, and
    4. how organs are obtained.
  11. In the case of living donors, special efforts should be made to ensure that the choice about donation is free of coercion. Financial incentives for providing or obtaining organs for transplantation can be coercive and should be prohibited. Individuals who are incapable of making informed decisions, for example minors or mentally incompetent persons, should not be considered as potential living donors except in extraordinary circumstances and in accordance with ethics committee review or established protocols. In order to avoid a conflict of interest, the physician who obtains informed consent from the living donor should not be part of the transplant team for the recipient.

G.  DETERMINATION OF DEATH

  1. The WMA considers that the determination of death is a clinical matter that should be made according to widely accepted guidelines established by expert medical groups, and as outlined in The World Medical Association’s Declaration of Sydney on the Determination of Death and the Recovery of Organs.
  2. Protocols and procedures should be developed to educate patients and families about procedures for diagnosing death and the opportunities for donation after death.
  3. In order to avoid a conflict of interest, the physician who determines and/or certifies the death of a potential organ donor should not be involved in the organ removal or in subsequent transplantation procedures or responsible for the care of potential recipients of these organs.

H.  JUSTICE IN ACCESS TO ORGANS

  1. The WMA considers there should be explicit policies open to public scrutiny governing all aspects of organ donation and transplantation, including the management of waiting lists for organs to ensure fair and appropriate access.
  2. Policies governing the management of waiting lists should ensure efficiency and fairness. Criteria that should be considered in allocating organs include severity of medical need, length of time on the waiting list, and medical probability of success measured by such factors as type of disease, other complications, and histocompatibility. There should be no discrimination based on social status, lifestyle or behaviour.
  3. Special appeals for organs for a specific recipient require further study and ethical examination to evaluate the potential impact on the fairness of allocation.
  4. Payment for organs for donation and transplantation must be prohibited. A financial incentive compromises the voluntariness of the choice and the altruistic basis for organ donation. Furthermore, access to needed medical treatment based on ability to pay is inconsistent with the principles of justice. Organs suspected to have been obtained through commercial transaction must not be accepted for transplantation. In addition, the advertisement of organs in exchange for money should be prohibited. However, reasonable reimbursement of expenses such as those incurred in procurement, transport, processing, preservation, and implantation is permissible.
  5. Physicians who are asked to transplant an organ that has been obtained through a commercial transaction should refuse to do so and should explain to the patient why such a medical act would be unethical: because the person who provided the organ risked his or her future health for financial rather than altruistic motives, and because such transactions are contrary to the principle of justice in the allocation of organs for transplantation.

I.  EXPERIMENTAL AND NEWLY DEVELOPING TRANSPLANTATION PROCEDURES

  1. The WMA considers that, although many transplantation procedures have become standard medical care for a range of medical conditions, others are experimental and/or morally controversial and require further research, safeguards, guidelines, and public debate.
  2. Experimental procedures require protocols, including ethics review, that are different and more rigorous than those for standard medical procedures.
  3. Xenotransplantation raises special issues, particularly in light of the risk of unwitting cross-species transmission of viruses and other pathogens. There is an urgent need for extensive public debate about xenotransplantation to ensure that developments in this field are consistent with societal values. International guidelines to govern these practices should be developed.
  4. Transplantation of organs developed using cell nuclear replacement technologies requires scientific review, public debate and appropriate guidelines before becoming accepted.

Adopted by the 46th WMA General Assembly, Stockholm, Sweden, September 1994
revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and by the 68th WMA General Assembly, Chicago, United States, October 2017
and rescinded and archived by the 74th WMA General Assembly, Kigali, Rwanda, October 2023

PREAMBLE

1.      According to International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) a disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes human, material, and economic or environmental losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability to cope using its own resources. Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human origins.

This definition excludes situations arising from conflicts and wars, whether international or internal, which give rise to other problems in addition to those considered in this paper.

2.      Disasters often result in substantial material damage, considerable displacement of people, many victims and significant social disruptions. Adequate preparation would make major consequences less likely and less severe and protect people especially the most vulnerable.

This document will focus particularly on the medical aspects of disasters. From a medical standpoint, disaster situations are characterized by an acute and unforeseen imbalance between resources and the capacity of medical professionals, and the needs of survivors who are injured whose health is threatened, over a given period of time.

3.      Disasters, irrespective of cause, share several common features:

3.1.     Their sudden and unexpected but often predictable occurrence, demanding prompt action;

3.2.     Material or natural damage making access to the survivors difficult and/or dangerous;

3.3.     Displacement or movement of often large numbers of people;

3.4.     Adverse effects on health due to various reasons such as physical injuries and high energy trauma, direct and indirect consequences of pollution, the risks of epidemics and emotional and psychological factors as well as factors such as reduced access to food, potable water, shelter, health care and other health determinants;

3.5.     A context of insecurity sometimes requiring police or military measures to maintain order; and

3.6.     Media coverage, and the use of social media.

4.      Disasters require multifaceted responses involving many different types of relief ranging from transportation and food supplies to medical services. Physicians are likely to be part of coordinated operations involving other responders such as law enforcement personnel. These operations require an effective and centralized authority to coordinate public and private efforts.

Rescue workers and physicians are confronted with exceptional circumstances, which require the continued need of a professional and ethical standard of care. This is to ensure that the treatment of disaster survivors conforms to basic ethical tenets and is not influenced by other motivations. Inadequate and/or disrupted medical resources on site and a large number of people injured in a short time present specific ethical challenges.

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.      Medical profession is at the service of the patients and society at all times and in all circumstances. Therefore, the physicians should be firmly committed to addressing the health consequences of disasters, without excuse or delay.

6.      The World Medical Association (WMA) reaffirms its Declaration of Montevideo on Disaster Preparedness and Medical Response (2011) recommending the development of adequate training of physicians, accurate mapping of information on health system assets and advocacy towards governments to ensure planning for clinical care.

7.      The WMA recalls the primary necessity to ensure the personal safety of physicians and other responders during the event of disasters (Declaration on the Protection of Health Care Workers in situation of Violence, 2014).

Physicians and other responders must have access to appropriate and functional equipment, both medical and protective.

8.      Furthermore, the WMA recommends the following ethical principles and procedures with regard to the physician’s role in disaster situations:

8.1    A system of triage may be necessary to determine treatment priorities. Despite triage often leading to some of the most seriously injured receiving only symptom control such as analgesia, such systems are ethical provided they adhere to normative standards.  Demonstrating care and compassion despite the need to allocate limited resources is an essential aspect of triage.

Ideally, triage should be entrusted to authorized, experienced physicians or to physician teams, assisted by a competent staff. Since cases may evolve and thus change category, it is essential that the official in charge of the triage regularly assesses the situation.

8.2     The following statements apply to treatment beyond emergency care:

8.2.1      It is ethical for a physician not to persist, at all costs, in treating individuals “beyond emergency care”, thereby wasting scarce resources needed else-where. The decision not to treat an injured person on account of priorities dictated by the disaster situation cannot be considered an ethical or medical failure to come to the assistance of a person in mortal danger. It is justified when it is intended to save the maximum number of individuals. However, the physician must show such patients compassion and respect for their dignity, for example by separating them from others and administering appropriate pain relief and sedatives, and if possible ask somebody to stay with the patient and not to leave him/her alone.

8.2.2      The physician must act according to the needs of patients and the resources available. He/she should attempt to set an order of priorities for treatment that will save the greatest number of lives and restrict morbidity to a minimum.

8.3    Relation with the patients

8.3.1      In selecting the patients who may be saved, the physician should consider only their medical status and predicted response to the treatment, and should exclude any other consideration based on non-medical criteria.

8.3.2      Survivors of a disaster are entitled to the same respect as other patients, and the most appropriate treatment available should be administered with the patient’s consent.

8.4    Aftermath of disaster

8.4.1      In the post-disaster period the needs of survivors must be considered. Many may have lost family members and may be suffering psychological distress. The dignity of survivors and their families must be respected.

8.4.2      The physician must make every effort to respect the customs, rites and religions of the patients and act in impartiality.

8.4.3      As far as possible, detailed records should be kept, including details of any difficulties encountered.  Identification of patients, including the deceased should be recorded.

8.5    Media and other third parties

Physicians should take into consideration that in any disaster media is present. The work of the media should be respected and facilitated as appropriate in the circumstances. If needed, physicians should be empowered to restrict the entrance of reporters and other media representatives to the medical premises. Appropriately trained personnel should handle media relations.

The physician has a duty to each patient to exercise discretion and to seek to ensure confidentiality when dealing with third parties. The physician must also exercise caution and objectivity and respect the often emotional and politicized atmosphere surrounding disaster situations. Any and all media especially filming must only occur with the explicit consent of each patient who is filmed. With regard to social media use, physicians must adhere to these same standards of discretion and respect for patient privacy.

8.6    Duties of paramedical personnel

The ethical principles that apply to physicians in disaster situations should also apply to other health care workers.

8.7    Training

The World Medical Association recommends that disaster medicine training be included in the curricula of university and post-graduate courses in medicine.

8.8    Responsibility

8.8.1      The World Medical Association calls upon governments and insurance companies to cover both civil liability and any personal damages to which physicians might be subject when working in disaster or emergency situations. This should also include life and disability coverage for physicians who die or are harmed in the line of duty.

8.8.2      The WMA requests that governments:

  • Ensure the preparedness of healthcare system to serve in disaster settings.
  • Share all information related to public health timely and accurately.
  • Accept the participation of demonstrably qualified foreign physicians, where needed, without discrimination on the basis of factors such as affiliation (e.g. Red Cross, Red Crescent, ICRC, and other qualified organizations), race, or religion.
  • Give priority to the rendering of medical services over anything else that might delay necessary treatment of patients.

 

 

Adopted by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006,
revised by the 68th WMA General Assembly, Chicago, United States, October 2017,
and by the 77th WMA General Assembly, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, October 2026

 

PREAMBLE

Introduction

  1. Medical education encompasses basic medical education (undergraduate), and all stages of postgraduate medical education, including specialty medical training, and continuing medical education (CME) / continuing professional development (CPD). It is a lifelong, evolving process commencing with entry to undergraduate medical education and extending until the cessation of active professional practice or retirement.
  2. The primary aim of medical education is to equip medical students and cultivate physicians with scientific knowledge, clinical skills, ethical judgment, contributing to improve medicine and healthcare, and adaptive capacities to master new technologies to promote health, prevent and treat disease, and relieve suffering.
  3. Physicians bear an individual and collective responsibility – to their patients and the profession – to maintain high standards of professionalism, competence, medical education system, and integrity throughout their careers. In accordance with the WMA International Code of Medical Ethics, they are obliged to engage in continuous learning throughout professional life in order to maintain and develop professional knowledge and skills. Institutions, regulators, and governments share the duty to enable and support physicians in fulfilling these responsibilities.
  4. Medical education, at every stage of a physician’s career, exists ultimately to serve the best interest of the patient. While physicians are the direct beneficiaries of medical education and continuing professional development, the true purpose and justification of medical education lies in its capacity to ensure safe, competent, and high-quality care for those who entrust their health to the profession. Any investment in medical education systems must therefore be understood not as a benefit conferred upon physicians, but as a fundamental obligation owed to patients. This principle is consistent with the physician’s foundational duty to act always in the best interest of the patient.

Basic Principles of Medical Education

  1. Medical education must foster not only knowledge and skills, but also professionalism, ethics, humanism, basis of contributing to improve medicine and healthcare, cultural awareness, and Physicians must be prepared to care for diverse populations, function in team-based care, and respond to evolving health challenges.
  2. The quality of medical education is a shared responsibility of educators, students, physicians, medical schools, universities, accreditation agencies, professional organisations, and governments. These stakeholders must commit to continuous improvement, transparency, and accountability across the educational continuum.

Basic Medical Education

  1. Purpose and outcome goals: The goal of basic medical education is to lay the foundation for clinical practice, professional autonomy, future specialisation, scholarly activity, public health engagement, leadership, and education. Graduates should be equipped with core competencies in clinical reasoning, communication, empathy, professional ethics, health systems understanding, and self-directed learning.
  2. Contextual relevance and alignment: Curriculum design, admissions policies, assessment strategies, and educational objectives must reflect local, regional, and national health priorities, while drawing inspiration from global standards for quality and equity. Decisions must be transparent, evidence-informed, and open to contributions from stakeholders.

Selection of Students

  1. Pre-admission preparation: Ideally, prior to admission, applicants should have received a broad foundational education encompassing science, humanities, social sciences, and ethics. Medical schools, universities, and relevant centralised admissions institutions should assess candidates on intellectual ability, skills, motivation, integrity, communication, empathy, and service orientation. A single factor (e.g., intellectual ability or scholarly criteria) should not be used to select candidates. Integrity, empathy and service orientation should be accurately evaluated and considered during selection processes. Attention should be paid to preventing fraud enabled by modern technology.
  2. Equitable admission process: Selection must be equitable, non-discriminatory, contextualised, and mission-driven. Schools should promote diversity, inclusion, and representation in the medical workforce. Support mechanisms, including bridging programs, should reduce financial or structural barriers.
  3. Alignment of intake with workforce needs: The number of admitted students should correlate with projected health workforce needs. Medical associations and governments should collaborate to ensure sustainable financing and manage supply to avoid imbalance or oversupply. Governments, regulators, and educational institutions should ensure that increases in undergraduate medical student intake are accompanied by adequate internship, residency, and specialist training positions.
  4. Transparency: Medical schools should make their goals and objectives known to prospective students and premedical counsellors in order that applicants may apply to medical schools whose programs are most in accord with their career goals. In publications, medical schools should explicitly state admission requirements and the methods they employ in the selection of students.
  5. Admissions testing: Although the results of standardised admission testing may be an important predictor of the ability of students to complete courses in the preclinical sciences successfully, medical schools should utilise such tests as only one of several criteria for the selection of students. Continuing review of admission tests is encouraged because the subject content of such examinations has an influence on premedical education and counselling.

Curriculum and Assessment

  1. Educational objectives and curriculum design: Educational objectives should be explicit, mapped to competencies, and developed in close contact with stakeholders (patients, community, clinicians). Curriculum must integrate basic sciences, behavioural and social sciences, population health, health systems, ethics, human rights, and planetary health in a spiral, integrated fashion.
  2. Pedagogical strategies: Instruction should consider and evaluate appropriate educational methodologies – evidence-based, efficient, flexible teaching methods.
  3. Research and inquiry: Students should be introduced early to research methodology, critical appraisal, evidence-based practice, and opportunities for inquiry or participation in academic projects. This will help foster a lifelong culture of curiosity and improvement.
  4. Clinical education, training and experiential learning: Clinical exposure must be supervised, progressive, and competency-based across diverse settings (primary, secondary, tertiary, rural, urban). Medical schools should establish standards and apply them to all components of the clinical educational program regardless of where they are conducted. Interprofessional collaboration and team-based care should be embedded. Responsibilities should increase with demonstrated competence.
  5. Assessment and progression: Valid, reliable, transparent assessment methods (formative, summative, objective structured clinical examination, portfolios, workplace-based assessment) must be used. Decisions about progression and remediation should be data-driven, with clear support and feedback systems. Faculties of medical schools have the responsibility to evaluate the cognitive abilities of their students. Extramural examinations may be used for this purpose, but never as the sole criterion for promotion or graduation of a student. Faculties also have the obligation to evaluate as thoroughly as possible the non-cognitive abilities of their medical students.

Student Support and Well-Being

  1. Medical schools must provide comprehensive support systems addressing academic, psychological, social, and career dimensions. Services include mentorship, career advising, counselling, stress management, peer support, and monitoring of well-being. These services should be confidential, timely, accessible, and free from academic or professional repercussions.
  2. Institutions have an obligation to foster a positive, respectful, physically, psychologically, and culturally safe learning environment. Educational culture must mitigate burnout risks, support a zero-tolerance policy towards violence or discriminatory behaviour in the workplace, promote feedback, respect diversity, and encourage help-seeking without stigma.

Faculty and Institutional Resources

  1. Faculty qualifications and roles: Faculty must be appropriately qualified – clinically and pedagogically – and recognised through non-discriminatory recruitment and promotion processes. Adequate faculty numbers must support educational, research, and service missions.
  2. Faculty development, evaluation, and scholarship: Each medical school should establish, or review already established, criteria for the initial appointment, continuation of appointment, and promotion of all categories of faculty. Regular evaluation of the contribution of all faculty members should be conducted in accordance with institutional policy and practice. Institutions must provide structured faculty development in teaching, assessment, research, leadership, mentorship, and educational innovation. Faculty should be engaged in ongoing evaluation and improvement of the curriculum.
  3. Academic culture and research infrastructure: A vibrant academic environment must promote inquiry, innovation, cross-disciplinary research, and collaboration. Institutions should support infrastructure and protected time for scholarly work and translational activity, and educational excellence.
  4. Resources and infrastructure: Sufficient and up-to-date physical, digital, simulation, clinical, library, and administrative resources must be available. Infrastructure must support the educational mission in scale and quality. Implementation of global educational standards should be accompanied by technical support, capacity building, and contextual adaptation for resource-constrained settings while maintaining universal principles of quality and patient safety.

Financing

  1. Sustainable, transparent financing models must support institutions and students. Collaboration among governments, national medical associations, philanthropic bodies, and educational institutions is needed. Equity in financial support (scholarships, subsidies, loans) is essential to avoid barriers to entry or attrition.

Postgraduate Medical Education

  1. Purpose and scope: Postgraduate medical education, mainly residency and specialty medical training, must follow basic education and prepare physicians for general or specialised practice. It should consolidate clinical competence, professionalism, and leadership.
  2. Program design and structure: Postgraduate medical education must combine structured didactics, supervised clinical care, scholarly activity, and quality improvement. Education should occur in high-functioning clinical settings that align learning and training with service and care.
  3. Balance, supervision, and responsibility: Programs must protect physicians in postgraduate education from excessive service burdens, allow progressive responsibility, educational development and maintain balance with personal and social wellness. This requires compliance with applicable national working-time regulations and occupational health and safety standards. Physicians in postgraduate education occupy a structurally vulnerable position, given their dependence on the training institution for progression and certification; reporting channels for unsafe working or training conditions must therefore remain separate from those processes. Supervision must be robust, feedback frequent, and assessment longitudinal.
  4. Assessment, progression, and certification: Assessment systems must support decision-making about progression. Certification for generalist or specialist practice must require demonstrable attainment of specialty competencies.
  5. Accreditation and quality review: All postgraduate programs should be subject to external accreditation and periodic quality review, aligned with international standards. Compliance with applicable national working-time regulations and occupational health and safety standards governing clinical training should be a condition of accreditation.

Continuing Medical Education (CME) / Continuing Professional Development (CPD)

  1. Definition and scope: CME/CPD includes all lifelong activities that sustain and enhance a physician’s knowledge, skills, ethics, attitudes, and professional relationships. This may include teaching, leadership, digital health / artificial intelligence, research, and community engagement.
  2. Principles for CME/CPD: CME/CPD must rely on existing evidence, be accessible, learner-centered, free from commercial and other undue interest, and responsive to emergent developments in medicine, technology and community/population needs.
  3. Shared responsibility: Medical societies, academic institutions, hospitals, medical organisations, and governments must collaborate to encourage and ensure equitable access to CME/CPD, regional programs, and incentives for participation.
  4. Recognition and accountability: Systems for recognition, accreditation, and periodic certification of CME/CPD should be transparent and aligned with universally accepted standards. Participation should be encouraged.
  5. Systems for CME and CPD should be practicable also for physicians working in small practices, and in rural areas with limited spare capacities, and not only for physicians attached to large institutions or academia.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

  1. As stated in its Resolution on WFME Global Standards for Quality Improvement of Medical Education, the WMA recognises the need and importance of robust global standards for quality improvement of medical education. The WMA:
  • Supports the WFME leadership in further developing and implementing global standards for medical education, in consultation with relevant stakeholders (medical organisations, medical schools, accreditation bodies, health ministries).
  • Calls for a regular revision of medical education and accreditation standards based on evidence review. For post-graduate medical education CME and periodic certification, the competent medical organisations should take a lead in consultation with relevant stakeholders.
  • Urges relevant stakeholders to ensure that national and regional education policies to comply with global standards in medical education, supporting necessary adaptations while ensuring that fundamental principles are upheld.
  • Calls for support for countries with insufficient resources enabling them to comply with global standards in medical education. Support should include facilitation of knowledge exchange, capacity building and technical assistance.
  • Strongly advocates for the rights of medical students, residents, and fellows to have physician-led clinical training, supervision, and evaluation while recognizing the contribution of non-physicians to medical education.
  1. The WMA endorses the 2025 WFME Declaration on Institutions’ Responsibility to Support Medical Students, Physicians in Postgraduate Education and Physicians in Practice, advocating for improved learning conditions and environments in each phase of medical education and professional development, including for ageing physicians, in line with its Statement on Ageing Physicians.

Adopted by the 36th World Medical Assembly, Singapore, October 1984
and revised by the 41st World Medical Assembly, Hong Kong, September 1989
42nd World Medical Assembly, Rancho Mirage, CA., USA, October 1990
44th World Medical Assembly, Marbella, Spain, September 1992
47th WMA General Assembly, Bali, Indonesia, September 1995
57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and 67th WMA General Assembly, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2016
and revised by the 68th WMA General Assembly, Chicago, United States, October 2017

 

OVER-ARCHING PRINCIPLE

1.     The welfare of children[1] is of paramount importance. Health professionals should put the welfare of children at the centre of all decision-making related to the child and act in the best interests of children in all of their interactions with children, young people, families, policy-makers and other professionals.

INTRODUCTION

2.     One of the most destructive manifestations of family violence and upheaval is child abuse[2] in all its forms. Prevention, protection, early identification, suitable interventions and comprehensive treatment of child abuse victims remain challenging for the world medical community. The World Medical Association (WMA) has called for increased health support of children living on the streets in its Statement on Supporting Health Support to Street Children, but it is also important to address the root causes of child abuse in all its forms.[3]

3.     Definitions of child abuse vary from culture to culture. Unfortunately, cultural rationalizations for harmful behaviour toward children may be accepted all too readily as proof that the treatment of children is neither abusive nor harmful. For instance, the work contribution of children in the everyday lives of families and in society should be recognized and encouraged only as long as it also contributes to the child’s own development. In contrast, exploitation of children in the labour market deprives them of their childhood and of educational opportunities and endangers their present and future health. The WMA considers such exploitation of children a serious form of child abuse in all its forms.

4.     For the purposes of this Statement, the various forms of child abuse include emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, child trafficking, child exploitation and child neglect. Child neglect represents a failure of a parent, or other person legally responsible for a child’s welfare, to provide for the child’s basic needs and an adequate level of care.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The WMA recognizes that child abuse in all its forms is a world health problem and recommends that National Medical Associations adopt the following guidelines for physicians:

5.     Physicians have both a unique and special role in identifying and helping abused children and their families.

6.     All physicians should be educated about the paramount importance of the welfare of children.

7.     Physicians must be aware of and observe local laws regarding consent to undertake examinations of children. Physicians must act in the best interests of children in all of their interactions with children, young people, families, policy-makers and other professionals.

8.     Collaboration with an experienced multidisciplinary team is strongly recommended for the physician. Such a team is likely to include physicians, social workers, child and adult psychiatrists, developmental specialists, psychologists and attorneys. When participation in a team is not possible or such a team is not available, the physician must consult with other medical, social, law enforcement and mental health personnel as appropriate.

9.     Primary care physicians, family practitioners, internists, paediatricians, emergency medicine specialists, surgeons, psychiatrists and other specialists who treat children must acquire knowledge and skills in the physical, psychological and emotional assessment of child abuse in all its forms, the assessment of child development and parenting skills, the utilization of community resources, and the physician’s legal responsibilities.

10.  All physicians who treat children, and those adults with caring responsibilities for children, should be aware of the principles of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child as well as relevant national protective legal provisions applying to children and young people.

11.  The medical evaluation of children who are suspected of having been abused should be performed by physicians skilled in both paediatrics and abuse evaluation. The medical evaluation needs to be tailored to the child’s age, injuries, and condition and may include blood testing, a trauma radiographic survey, and developmental and behavioural screenings. Follow up radiographs are strongly urged in some children who present with serious, apparently abusive injuries.

12.  The medical assessment and management of sexually abused children includes a complete history and physical examination, as physical and sexual abuses often occur together; examination of the genitalia and anus; the collection and processing of evidence, including photographs; and the treatment and/or prevention of pregnancy and venereal disease. Specific attention should be paid to the child’s right to privacy.

13.  It is essential for the physician to understand and be sensitive to the following: the quality of relationships between care-givers; disciplinary actions or styles used within the child’s home; economic stresses on the family; emotional stresses or issued experienced by members of the family; mental health problems exhibited by any members of the family; violence between the care-givers or other members of the family; substance use and abuse, including alcohol and legal and illegal drugs; and any other forms of stress that could relate to child abuse in all its forms.

14.  All physicians need to be aware that all forms of abuse of children by other children can occur.  Recognition that this may be a result of prior or current abuse of the alleged abuser must be at the forefront of the physician’s mind when such situations are suspected or encountered.

15.  The signs of abuse are often subtle, and the diagnosis may require comprehensive, careful interviews with the child, parent(s), care-givers, and siblings. Inconsistencies among explanation(s) and characteristics of the injury(s), such as the severity, type and age, should be documented and further investigated.

16.  In any child presenting to a medical facility, the emergent medical and mental health needs should be addressed first. If abuse is suspected, safety needs must be addressed prior to discharge from the facility. These measures should include:

  • Reporting all suspected cases to child protective services;
  • Hospitalizing any abused child needing protection during the initial evaluation period;
  • Informing the parents of the suspicion of abuse or diagnosis of abuse if it is safe to do so; and
  • Reporting the child’s injuries to child protective services or other relevant authorities.

17.  If hospitalization is required, a prompt evaluation of the child’s physical, emotional and developmental problems is necessary. This comprehensive assessment should be conducted by physicians with expertise or through a multidisciplinary team of experts with specialized training in child abuse.

18.  If child abuse is suspected, the physician should discuss with the parent(s) the fact that child abuse is in the differential diagnosis of their child’s problem. Advice may be required from child protective services.

19.  During discussions with the parent(s), guardians, or care-givers it is essential that the physician maintain objectivity and avoid accusatory or judgmental statements in interactions with the parent(s) or individual(s) responsible for the child’s care.

20.  It is essential that the physician record the history and examination findings in the medical chart contemporaneously during the evaluation process. Injuries should be documented using photographs, illustrations, and detailed descriptions. The medical record often provides critical evidence in court proceedings.

21.  Physicians should participate at all levels of prevention by providing prenatal and postnatal family counselling, identifying problems in child rearing and parenting, and advising about family planning and birth control.

22.  Public health measures such as home visits by nurses and other health professionals, anticipatory guidance by parents, and well-infant and well-child examinations should be encouraged by physicians. Programs that improve the child’s general health also tend to prevent child abuse in all its forms and should be supported by physicians and their representative bodies.

23.  Physicians should recognize that child abuse and neglect is a complex problem and more than one type of treatment or service may be needed to help abused children and their families. The development of appropriate treatment requires contributions from many professions, including medicine, law, nursing, education, psychology and social work.

24.  Physicians should promote the development of innovative programs that will advance medical knowledge and competence in the field of child abuse and neglect. Inclusion of on-going reviews of knowledge, skills and competency in relation to protecting the rights of children and young people, promoting their health and well-being and the recognition of and response to suspected cases of child abuse and neglect is crucial in professional educational programs. Physicians should obtain education on child neglect and abuse in all its forms during training as medical students.

25.  In the interests of the child, patient confidentiality may be waived in cases of child abuse. The first duty of a doctor is to protect his or her patient if victimization is suspected. No matter what the type of abuse (including physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, trafficking, exploitation or neglect), an official report must be made to the appropriate authorities.

26.  Inclusion of on-going reviews of knowledge, skills and competency in relation to protecting the rights of children and young people, promoting their health and well-being and the recognition of and response to suspected cases of child abuse in all its forms and neglect is crucial in professional educational programmes.

27.  The undergraduate medical curriculum must include a mandatory course on child abuse, in all its forms, within the paediatrics program, that can be developed within postgraduate and continuing medical education for those intending to work within this field.

 

[1] The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as anyone who has not reached their 18th birthday.
[2] Child abuse and Child maltreatment are used synonymously in this Statement.
[3] Neglect is the persistent failure to meet a child’s basic needs, likely to result in the serious impairment of a child’s health, well-being or development.

Adopted by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and revised by the 68th WMA General Assembly, Chicago, United States, October 2017

 

INTRODUCTION

1.      HIV/AIDS, a chronic manageable disease, is a global pandemic that has created unprecedented challenges for physicians and health infrastructures.

In addition to representing a staggering public health crisis, HIV/AIDS is also fundamentally a human rights issue.

Many factors drive the spread of the disease, such as poverty, homelessness, illiteracy, prostitution, human trafficking, drug (substance) abuse, stigma, discrimination and gender-based inequality.

These social, economic, legal and human rights factors affect not only the public health dimension of HIV/AIDS but also individual physicians/health workers and patients, their decisions and relationships.

Efforts to tackle the disease are also constrained by the lack of human and financial resources available in health care systems.

2.      Discrimination against HIV / AIDS patients by physicians is unacceptable and must be eliminated completely from the practice of medicine.

2.1    All persons with HIV/AIDS are entitled to adequate and timely support, treatment and care with compassion and respect for human dignity.

2.2    It is unethical for a physician to refuse to treat a patient whose condition is within his or her current realm of competence, solely because the patient is seropositive.

2.3    National Medical Associations should work with respective governments, patient groups and relevant national and international organizations to ensure that national health policies clearly and explicitly prohibit discrimination against people infected with or affected by HIV/AIDS, including vulnerable groups such as males having sex with males and transgender persons.

2.4    Woman and man having sex with same sex partners are at a higher risk of discrimination at all levels. National Medical organizations shall work with Government, Non-Governmental Organizations, and Community based organizations to remove the discrimination for these under-privileged disadvantaged groups.

 

APPROPRIATE / COMPETENT MEDICAL CARE

3.      Patients with HIV/AIDS must be provided with competent and appropriate medical care at all stages of the disease.

4.      A physician who is not able to provide the care and services required by patients with HIV/AIDS must make an appropriate timely referral to those physicians or facilities that are equipped to provide such services. Unless or until the referral can be accomplished, the physician must take care for the patient.

5.      All physicians should be able to timely suspect and identify common opportunistic infections such as tuberculosis, fungal infections in HIV-AIDs patients and also suspect HIV-AIDS in presence of these infections especially in high risk individuals like IV drug users.

They must timely counsel these patient about the nexus of these infections with HIV infection.

6.      Physicians and other appropriate professional bodies must ensure that patients have accurate information regarding transmission of HIV/AIDS and strategies to protect themselves against infection.

Proactive measures should be taken to ensure that all members of the population, particularly at-risk groups, are educated to this effect.

Public information and related strategies should recognise that everyone is at risk, and attempt to spell out methods of risk reduction.

7.      Physicians must effectively counsel all seropositive patients regarding responsible behaviour to prevent the spread of the infection to their partners and prevention of opportunistic infections.

8.      Physicians must recognize that many people still believe HIV/AIDS to be an automatic and immediate death sentence and therefore will not seek testing.

Physicians must ensure that patients have accurate information regarding the treatment options available to them.

Patients should understand the potential and need of starting early antiretroviral treatment (ART) to improve not only their medical condition but also the quality of their lives. The new strategy is test and treat strategy.

Effective ART can greatly extend the period that patients are able to lead healthy productive lives, functioning socially and in the workplace and maintaining their independence.

HIV/AIDS is now manageable chronic condition.

For ART country – specific WHO evidence based practice guidelines should be followed and promoted by all NMAs.

9.      Physicians should be aware that misinformation regarding the negative aspects of ART has created resistance toward treatment by patients in some areas. Where misinformation is being spread about ART, physicians and medical associations must make it an immediate priority to publicly challenge the source of the misinformation and to work with the HIV/AIDS community to counteract the negative effects of the misinformation.

10.    Physicians should encourage the involvement of support networks to assist patients in adhering to ART regimens. With the patient’s consent, counselling and training should be available to family members to assist them in providing care.

11.    Physicians must be aware of the discriminatory attitudes toward HIV/AIDS that are prevalent in society and local culture. Because physicians are the first, and sometimes the only, people who are informed of their patients’ HIV status, physicians should be able to counsel them about their basic social and legal rights and responsibilities or should refer them to counsellors who specialize in the rights of persons living with HIV/AIDS.

12.    Physicians should be aware of the current availability and prescribing guidelines for pre-exposure and post-exposure prophylaxis for any patient and health care providers who may have been exposed to HIV.

 

TESTING

13.    Mandatory testing for HIV must be required of donated blood and blood fractions collected for donation or to be used in the manufacture of blood products; organs and other tissues intended for transplantation; and semen or ova collected for assisted reproduction procedures.

Newer technologies which are more sensitive, specific, and reduce the window period of HIV detection, such as nuclear acid testing (NAT), should be encouraged for such screening.

14.    Mandatory HIV testing of an individual against his or her will is a violation of medical ethics and human rights.

15.    Physicians must clearly explain the purpose of an HIV test, the reasons it is recommended and the implications of a positive test result.

Before a test is administered, the physician should have an action plan in place in case of a positive test result. Informed consent must be obtained from the patient prior to testing.

16.    While certain groups are labeled “high risk”, anyone who has had unprotected sex should be considered at risk.

Physicians must become increasingly proactive about recommending testing to patients, based on a mutual understanding of the level of risk and the potential to benefit from testing. Pregnant women and her partner should routinely be offered testing for HIV, and those pregnant women found to be HIV positive should be offered immediate counseling and offered timely ART (at diagnosis) in order to prevent transmission of the virus to the fetus and treatment of the fetus if seropositive.

17.    Counselling and voluntary anonymous testing for HIV should be available to all persons who request it, along with adequate post-testing support mechanisms.

 

PROTECTION FROM HIV IN THE HEALTH CARE ENVIRONMENT

18.    Physicians and all health care workers have the right to a safe work environment. Especially in developing countries, the problem of occupational exposure to HIV has contributed to high attrition rates of the health labour force. In some cases, employees become infected with HIV, and in other cases fear of infection causes health care workers to leave their jobs voluntarily. Fear of infection among health workers can also lead to refusal to treat HIV/AIDS patients. Likewise, patients have the right to be protected to the greatest degree possible from transmission of HIV from health professionals and in health care institutions.

18.1  Proper infection control procedures and universal precautions consistent with the most current national or international standards, as appropriate, should be implemented in all health care facilities. This includes procedures for the use of preventive and timely bART for health professionals who have been exposed to HIV.

18.2  If the appropriate safeguards for protecting physicians or patients against infection are not in place, physicians and National Medical Associations should take action to correct the situation.

18.3  Physicians who are infected with HIV should not engage in any activity that creates a risk of transmission of the disease to others.

In the context of possible exposure to HIV, the activity in which the physician wishes to engage will be the determining factor.

There may be nationally agreed standards but if not a determination should be made by a suitable expert panel or committee of health workers.

18.4  In the provision of medical care, if a risk of transmission of an infectious disease from a physician to a patient exists, disclosure of that risk to patients is not enough; patients are entitled to expect that their physicians will not increase their exposure to the risk of contracting an infectious disease.

18.5  If no risk exists, disclosure of the physician’s medical condition to his or her patients will serve no rational purpose.

18.6  Physicians should be aware of current professional guidelines for post-exposure prophylaxis of health care workers in case of any accidental exposure to HIV.

 

PROTECTING PATIENT PRIVACY AND ISSUES RELATED TO NOTIFICATION

19.    Fear of stigma and discrimination is a driving force behind the spread of HIV/AIDS. The social and economic repercussions of being identified as infected can be devastating and can include violence, rejection by family and community members, loss of housing and loss of employment.

Normalizing the presence of HIV/AIDS in society through public education is the only way to reduce discriminatory attitudes and practices. Until that can be universally achieved, or a cure is developed, potentially infected individuals may refuse testing to avoid these consequences.

The result of individuals not knowing their HIV status is not only disastrous on a personal level in terms of not receiving treatment, but may also lead to high rates of avoidable transmission of the disease. Fear of unauthorized disclosure of information also provides a disincentive to participate in HIV/AIDS research and generally thwarts the efficacy of prevention programs. Lack of confidence in protection of personal medical information regarding HIV status is a threat to public health globally and a core factor in the continued spread of HIV/AIDS. At the same time, in certain circumstances, the right to privacy must be balanced with the right of partners (sexual and injection drug) of persons with HIV/AIDS to be informed of their potential infection. Failure to inform partners not only violates their rights but also leads to the health problems of avoidable transmission and delay in treatment.

20.    All standard ethical principles and duties related to confidentiality and protection of patients’ health information, as articulated in the WMA Declaration of Lisbon on the Rights of the Patient, apply equally in the context of HIV/AIDS. In addition, National Medical Associations and physicians should take note of the special circumstances and obligations (outlined below) associated with the treatment of HIV/AIDS patients.

20.1  National Medical Associations and physicians must, as a matter of priority, ensure that HIV/AIDS public education, prevention and counselling programs contain explicit information related to protection of patient information as a matter not only of medical ethics but of their human right to privacy.

20.2  Special safeguards are required when HIV/AIDS care involves a physically dispersed care team that includes home-based service providers, family members, counsellors, case workers or others who require medical information to provide comprehensive care and assist in adherence to treatment regimens. In addition to implementing protection mechanisms regarding transfer of information, ethics training regarding patient privacy should be given to all team members.

Many countries have specific legislation to protect the privacy of those who are HIV positive. Others may consider the same.

20.3  Physicians must make all efforts to convince HIV/AIDS patients to take action to notify all partners (sexual and/or injection drug) about their exposure and potential infection. Physicians must be competent to counsel patients about the options for notifying partners. 
These options should include:

20.3.1    Notification of the partner(s) by the patient. In this case, the patient should receive counselling regarding the information that must be provided to the partner and strategies for delivering it with sensitivity and in a manner that is easily understood. A timetable for notification should be established and the physician should follow-up with the patient to ensure that notification has occurred.

20.3.2    Notification of the partner(s) by a third party. In this case, the third party must make every effort to protect the identity of the patient.

20.4  When all strategies to convince the patient to take such action have been exhausted, and if the physician knows the identity of the patient’s partner(s), the physician is compelled, either by law or by moral obligation, to take action to notify the partner(s) of their potential infection. Depending on the system in place, the physician will either notify directly the person at risk or report the information to a designated authority responsible for notification.

Physicians must be aware of the laws and regulations in the jurisdiction in which they are practicing. In cases where a physician must disclose the information regarding exposure, the physician must:

20.4.1    inform the patient of his or her intentions,

20.4.2    to the extent possible, ensure that the identity of the patient is protected,

20.4.3    take the appropriate measures to protect the safety of the patient, especially in the case of a female patient vulnerable to domestic violence.

20.5  Regardless of whether it is the patient, the physician or a third party who undertakes notification, the person learning of his or her potential infection should be offered support and assistance in order to access testing and treatment.

20.6  National Medical Associations should develop guidelines to assist physicians in decision-making related to notification. These guidelines should help physicians understand the legal requirements and consequences of notification decisions as well as the medical, psychological, social and ethical considerations.

20.7  As per local and national laws and guidelines requiring the reporting of new HIV infections, sexually transmitted diseases, and opportunistic infections, physicians must protect the privacy and confidentiality of all patients and maintain the highest ethical standards.

20.8  National Medical Associations should work with governments to ensure that physicians who carry out their ethical obligation to notify individuals at risk, and who take precautions to protect the identity of their patient, are afforded adequate legal protection.

 

MEDICAL EDUCATION

21.    National Medical Associations should assist in ensuring that there is training and education of physicians in the most current prevention strategies and medical treatments available for all stages of HIV/AIDS and associated infections, including prevention and support.

22.    National Medical Associations should, when appropriate, collaborate with NGOs and community based organizations, insist upon, and when possible assist with, the education of physicians in the relevant psychological, legal, cultural and social dimensions of HIV/AIDS.

23.    National Medical Associations should fully support the efforts of physicians wishing to concentrate their expertise in HIV/AIDS care, even where HIV/AIDS is not recognized as an official specialty or sub-specialty within the medical education system.

24.    The WMA encourages its national medical associations to promote the inclusion of designated, comprehensive courses on HIV/AIDS in undergraduate and postgraduate medical education programs, as well as continuing medical education.

INTEGRATION of HIV/AIDS SERVICES with other STDs MANAGEMENT ACTIVITES

25.    The National Medical Associations should support governments to integrate HIV/AIDS preventive and curative services with other STD management activities in a comprehensive manner.

 

Adopted by the 45th World Medical Assembly, Budapest, Hungary, October 1993,
revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and reaffirmed by the 203rd WMA Council Session, Buenos Aires, Argentina, April 2016
and rescinded and archived by the 76th WMA General Assembly, Porto, Portugal, October 2025

 

PREAMBLE

Medical practitioners have an ethical duty and a professional responsibility to act in the best interests of their patients without regard to age, gender, sexual orientation, physical ability or disability, race, religion, culture, beliefs, political affiliation, financial means or nationality.

This duty includes advocating for patients, both as a group (such as advocating on public health issues) and as individuals.

Occasionally, this duty may conflict with a physician’s other legal, ethical and/or professional duties, creating social, professional and ethical dilemmas for the physician.

Potential conflicts with the physician’s obligation of advocacy on behalf of his or her patient may arise in a number of contexts:

  1. Conflict between the obligation of advocacy and confidentiality – A physician is ethically and often legally obligated to preserve in confidence a patient’s personal health information and any information conveyed to the physician by the patient in the course of his or her professional duties. This may conflict with the physician’s obligation to advocate for and protect patients where the patients may be incapable of doing so themselves.
  2. Conflict between the best interest of the patient and employer or insurer dictates – Often there exists potential for conflict between a physician’s duty to act in the best interest of his or her patients, and the dictates of the physician’s employer or the insurance body, whose decision may be shaped by economic or administrative factors unrelated to the patient’s health. Examples of such might be an insurer’s instructions to prescribe a specific drug only, where the physician believes a different drug would better suit a particular patient, or an insurer’s denial of coverage for treatment that a physician believes is necessary.
  3. Conflict between the best interests of the individual patient and society – Although the physician’s primary obligation is to his or her patient, the physician may, in certain circumstances, have responsibilities to a patient’s family and/or to society as well. This may arise in cases of conflict between the patient and his or her family, in the case of minor or incapacitated patients, or in the context of limited resources.
  4. Conflict between the patient’s wishes and the physician’s professional judgment or moral values – Patients are presumed to be the best arbiters of their best interests and, in general, a physician should advocate for and accede to the wishes of his or her patient. However, in certain instances such wishes may be contrary to the physician’s professional judgment or personal values.

RECOMMENDATION

  1. The duty of confidentiality must be paramount except in cases where the physician is legally or ethically obligated to disclose such information in order to protect the welfare of the individual patient, third parties or society. In such cases, the physician must make a reasonable effort to notify the patient of the obligation to breach confidentiality, and explain the reasons for doing so, unless this is clearly inadvisable (such as where telling the patient would exacerbate a threat). In certain cases, such as genetic or HIV testing, physicians should discuss with their patients, prior to performing the test, instances in which confidentiality might need to be breached.A physician should breach confidentiality in order to protect the individual patient only in cases of minor or incompetent patients (such as certain cases of child or elder abuse) and only where alternative measures are not available. In all other cases, confidentiality may be breached only with the specific consent of the patient or his/her legal representative or where necessary for the treatment of the patient, such as in consultations between medical practitioners.Whenever confidentiality must be breached, it should be done so only to the extent necessary and only to the relevant party or authority.
  2. In all cases where a physician’s obligation to his or her patient conflicts with the administrative dictates of the employer or the insurer, a physician must strive to change the decision of the employing/insuring body. His or her ultimate obligation must be to the patient.Mechanisms should be in place to protect physicians who wish to challenge decisions of employers/insurers without jeopardizing their jobs, and to resolve disagreements between medical professionals and administrators with regard to allocation of resources.Such mechanisms should be embodied in medical practitioners’ employment contracts. These employment contracts should acknowledge that medical practitioners’ ethical obligations override purely contractual obligations related to employment.
  3. A physician should be aware of and take into account economic and other factors before making a decision regarding treatment. Nonetheless, a physician has an obligation to advocate on behalf of his or her patient for access to the best available treatment.In all cases of conflict between a physician’s obligation to the individual patient and the obligation to the patient’s family or to society, the obligation to the individual patient should typically take precedence.
  4. Competent patients have the right to determine, on the basis of their needs, values and preferences, what constitutes for them the best course of treatment in any given situation.Unless it is an emergency situation, physicians should not be required to participate in any procedures that conflict with their personal values or professional judgment. In such non-emergency cases, the physician should explain to the patient his or her inability to carry out the patient’s wishes, and the patient should be referred to another physician, if required.

Adopted by the 44th World Medical Assembly, Marbella, Spain, September 1992
Revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and by the 67th WMA General Assembly, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2016
Rescinded and archived by the 76th WMA General Assembly, Porto, Portugal, October 2025

 

INTRODUCTION

Deaths and injuries resulting from road crashes and collisions are a major public health problem. The World Health Organization’s 2015 Global status report on road safety indicates that the total number of road traffic deaths per year has reached 1.25 million worldwide, with the highest road traffic fatality rates in low-income countries.

Driving while under the influence of alcohol has caused a large number of the deaths and injuries resulting from road crashes. The prevalence of drinking and driving is increasing worldwide each year.

A change in the behaviour of road users with regard to alcohol consumption would appear to be the most promising approach to preventing traffic deaths and injuries. Measures forbidding driving while under the influence of alcohol will lead to a considerable improvement in road safety and an appreciable reduction in the number of dead and injured.

CONSEQUENCES OF DRINKING AND DRIVING

Driving a vehicle implies the acceptance of a certain number of risks. The careful driver will always be aware of the risks but also ensure that the level of risk never rises to an unacceptable level. Alcohol not only impairs one’s ability to drive, but it also alters a driver’s subjective assessment of risk so that he or she drives more recklessly.

Irrespective of the amount of alcohol consumed, the maximum concentration of alcohol in the body is reached:After half an hour when taken

  • on an empty stomach;
  • After an hour when taken with a meal.

On the other hand, it takes the body a long time to eliminate alcohol. An individual in good health eliminates alcohol at a rate that reduces blood alcohol concentration by 0.1 to 0.15 gram/litre/hour. Thus, one’s driving ability remains impaired long after he or she has stopped drinking.

Alcohol abuse has both short- and long-term neurological and psychiatric consequences that can endanger road safety.

Certain drugs interact negatively with alcohol, and in particular some combinations are known to reduce alertness. When drugs, whether legal or illegal, are taken with alcohol, the effect of the latter is intensified. This mixture can trigger mental dysfunctions that are extremely dangerous for road users. Physicians should be educated and informed about these pharmacological facts.

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. The WMA reaffirms its commitments to work for reducing excessive alcohol consumption and for fostering harm-reduction policies and other measures (WMA Declaration on Alcohol, October 2015.)

2. Physicians and National Medical Associations should play an active role in promoting and advocating for the development of evidence-based government policies to reduce alcohol use and driving:

Policy interventions

3. At the present time, permitted blood alcohol levels while driving vary from country to country. Even small amounts of alcohol have a direct effect on the brain, with disturbances noted at levels as low as 0.3 grams per litre. Therefore, it would be desirable to lower the maximum permissible level of blood alcohol to a minimum, but not above 0.5 grams per litre, which is low enough to allow the average driver to retain the ability to assess risk.

4. The especially high prevalence in certain countries of driving while under the influence of alcohol may justify more coercive policies, which physicians and National Medical Associations should play an active role in supporting. For example, the driver may be declared unfit to drive for a period of time sufficient to ensure he or she will no longer be a threat to road safety in the future.

5. Government officials should consider implementing restrictions on the sale or affordability of alcohol, perhaps through taxation, licensing systems, and/or limits on the days and hours of sale. Restrictions on the promotion of alcoholic beverages, including advertising and event sponsorship, should also be considered.

6. A minimum legal age for alcohol purchase and consumption should be adopted in each country. Government officials should consider implementing a separate, lower or zero blood alcohol content law for young drivers.

7. There should be strict consequences to selling alcoholic beverages to individuals under the age to purchase and consume alcohol. These laws should be properly enforced.

8. Any driver who has been in a road traffic crash must undergo a blood alcohol concentration test or a breath test.

9. The practice of random driver testing for breath alcohol levels should become more widespread, and there should be further research into other ways to test urine, breath and saliva to identify impaired drivers and prevent subsequent operation of motor vehicles.

10. Devices that prevent individuals with an unauthorised level of blood alcohol from starting the engine of or operating the vehicle should be developed and experimented with.

Educational interventions

12. Educational interventions should promote moderation and responsibility in the consumption of alcohol and seek to reduce the likelihood that someone will consume alcohol and drive afterwards.

13. The information dispensed by physicians and other health professionals should be aimed at making everyone aware of the dangers of driving under the influence of alcohol. When physicians and other health professionals issue fitness-to-drive certificates, they can use this opportunity to educate road users and pass on a message of prevention and personal responsibility.

14. In most countries, road crashes linked to alcohol consumption affect adolescents and young adults to a disproportionately high degree, and every available resource should be mobilised to reduce their consumption of alcohol. The problem of alcohol consumption in adolescents and young adults and its relation to road safety should be addressed in the school curricula so that a responsible attitude becomes the norm.

Clinical and rehabilitative interventions

15. Physicians should also be involved in reducing the likelihood of impaired driving by participating in the detoxification and rehabilitation of drunk drivers. These initiatives should be based on a detailed analysis of the problem as it manifests itself within each country or culture. Generally speaking, however, alcoholism is a medical condition with concomitant psychological or social and interpersonal difficulties that affect the family, work or social environment.

16. Alcoholic subjects should be given access to rehabilitation services. When drivers are found to have excess alcohol in their blood (or their breath), other factors linked to their excessive drinking should be examined and included in a rehabilitation programme. These rehabilitation programmes should be publicly funded.

17. Road crashes linked to the consumption of alcohol can be considered as possible predictors of other addictive and violent behaviours. This should be taken into consideration in the medical treatment of the patient.

Community interventions

18. Strategies should be developed by relevant stakeholders to ensure safe transportation home in situations where alcohol consumption occurs.

19. Eliminating alcohol from the workplace and in situations where consumers must drive should be a goal of organizational policies. The promotion of non-alcoholic drinks is an important tool to facilitate these policies.

Adoptée par le 43e Assemblée médicale mondiale, Malte, Novembre 1991
et révisée par la 57e Assemblée générale de l’AMM, Pilanesberg, Afrique du Sud,
et par la 67e Assemblée générale de l’AMM, Taipei, Taiwan, Octobre 2016

PRÉAMBULE

Au cours des dernières décennies, il s’est produit un changement important concernant les causes de mortalité chez les adolescents. Alors que la plupart de ces derniers mouraient précédemment d’une mort naturelle, aujourd’hui ils risquent davantage de mourir de causes prévisibles. Ainsi assiste-t-on au niveau mondial à une augmentation du suicide chez les jeunes dans les pays développés comme dans les pays en voie développement. Parmi les adolescents, le suicide est actuellement l’une des causes majeures de décès. On sous-estime probablement les suicides à cause de la stigmatisation culturelle et religieuse liée à l’autodestruction et à un refus de voir dans certains traumatismes, tout comme dans quelques accidents de la route, une cause volontaire.

Le suicide d’un adolescent est une tragédie affectant non seulement l’individu mais aussi la famille, ses semblables et son entourage. Souvent, le suicide est vécu par les parents, les amis et médecins comme un échec personnel, ces derniers se reprochant de ne pas avoir décelé les signes d’avertissement. C’est également considéré comme un échec par la communauté ce qui prouve bien que la société moderne souvent n’assure pas un environnement nourricier, fraternel et sain permettant aux enfants de grandir et d’évoluer.

Il existe différents facteurs de suicide dont notamment : les troubles affectifs, les traumatismes, la solitude émotionnelle, le manque d’estime de soi, les graves tensions émotionnelles, les troubles alimentaires, le harcèlement ( à l’école, sur internet  et le harcèlement sexuel), les fantasmes romantiques, la recherche de sensations fortes, l’abus de drogues et d’alcool, l’existence d’armes à feu et d’autres agents d’autodestruction ainsi que les media rapportant des cas de suicides d’adolescents susceptibles d’inspirer des actes similaires. De plus l’exposition prolongée au média électronique, qui concerne principalement les adolescents au travers des jeux électroniques et des réseaux sociaux, peut contribuer à un isolement social, à des échecs scolaires et à un mal être parmi les jeunes.

Les jeunes dans les maisons de correction courent davantage de risques de suicide que la population en général tout en ayant moins de moyens disponibles. Le manque de ressources rend difficile l’identification de ceux  présentant des risques suicidaires.

On constate une proportion de suicides d’adolescent plus élevée au sein des populations “Autochtones” de certains pays. Les raisons pour cela sont complexes.

Les adolescents sont mieux soignés lorsque les médecins délivrent des prestations complètes, une évaluation et un traitement à caractère médical et psychosocial. Des soins complets et permanents permettent au médecin de recueillir les renseignements nécessaires pour identifier les adolescents présentant des risques suicidaires ou ayant un comportement autodestructeur. Ce type de prestations aide également à établir une relation patient-médecin socialement protectrice et susceptible de contrecarrer les mauvaises influences que subissent les adolescents dans leur entourage.

Dans son travail de prévention du suicide des adolescents, L’Association Médicale Mondiale reconnaît la nature complexe du développement bio-psycho-social de l’adolescent, les mutations sociales dans le monde auxquelles sont confrontés les adolescents et l’introduction de nouveaux agents plus létaux d’autodestruction. En réponse à ces préoccupations, elle recommande aux Associations Médicales Nationales d’adopter les directives suivantes pour les médecins. En agissant ainsi, nous reconnaissons que de nombreux autres acteurs – parents, gouvernements, agences, écoles, communautés, services sociaux – ont aussi un rôle important dans ce domaine.

RECOMMENDATIONS

  1. Tout médecin doit, au cours de ses études et pendant sa formation postuniversitaire, recevoir une formation en psychiatrie pédiatrique, y compris sur les facteurs de risque de suicide.
  2. La formation des médecins devrait permettre l’identification des premiers signes ou des premiers symptômes de détresse physique, émotionnelle et sociale chez l’adolescent. Ils devraient aussi être aussi formés à l’identification des signes et troubles psychiatriques tels que la dépression, les troubles bipolaires et l’addiction à des substances susceptibles de contribuer au suicide ainsi qu’aux autres comportements autodestructeurs.
  3. Les médecins devraient apprendre comment et quand évaluer un risque de suicide parmi ses patients adolescents.
  4. Les médecins doivent connaître et se tenir à jour des traitements, savoir où diriger ses patients adolescents quel que soit le degré de leur comportement autodestructeur. Les médecins ayant la plus grande formation en matière de suicide des adolescents sont les psychiatres pédiatres et c’est à l’un d’entre eux lorsqu’il existe que devraient être adressés les patients.
  5. Les médecins devraient aussi collaborer avec d’autres personnes compétentes telles que les travailleurs sociaux, les cadres scolaires et les psychologues spécialisés dans le comportement des enfants et des adolescents.
  6. Lorsqu’ils soignent des adolescents ayant un quelconque type de traumatisme, les médecins doivent envisager la possibilité que ces blessures résultent d’un acte volontaire.
  7. Lorsqu’ils soignent des adolescents présentant une détérioration au niveau cognitif, sentimental ou comportemental, il faudrait penser à l’abus de substances et l’addiction et fixer un faible seuil au-delà duquel un test toxicologique par les urines s’impose.
  8. Les systèmes de santé doivent permettre l’organisation de consultations de santé mentale afin de prévenir les suicides et prendre financièrement en charge les soins médico-sociaux des patients ayant fait une tentative de suicide. Les services doivent être adaptés aux besoins spécifiques des patients adolescents.
  9. Il faudrait de mener des études épidémiologiques sur le suicide, ses facteurs de risques ainsi que ses méthodes de prévention. Les médecins devraient être toujours informés de telles études.
  10. Lorsqu’ils soignent des adolescents présentant des troubles psychiatriques ou des risques suicidaires, les médecins devraient éduquer les parents ou les tuteurs à être attentifs aux signes de suicide et leur apprendre les modes d’évaluation.
  11. Les médecins devraient soutenir l’identification des groupes d’adolescents à risque avec la mobilisation de ressources identifiées spécifiquement à la prévention et la réduction des risques.

Adopted by the 42nd World Medical Assembly, Rancho Mirage, CA., USA, October 1990
and revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006,
by the 67th WMA General Assembly, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2016
and revised by the 77th WMA General Assembly, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, October 2026

 

PREAMBLE

Traffic injuries are a public health issue with considerable human, social and economic consequences.

According to the latest report on road safety published by the World Health Organisation in December 2023, traffic accidents remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Despite a slight decline from the estimated deaths recorded in 2010, there was still an estimated 1.19 million deaths recorded in 2021. Between 20 to 50 million people suffer injuries, with many leading to a disability. Users of powered two- and three wheelers represent 30% of fatalities, followed by four-wheel vehicle occupants (25%), pedestrians (21%) and cyclists (5%). The remaining 19% of deaths involve occupants of vehicles carrying more than 10 people, heavy goods vehicles, “other” users and “unknown” user types.

Nearly 92% of deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, even though they account for only about 60% of the global motor vehicle fleet. Young people aged from 5 to 29 are particularly at risk, with traffic accidents being the leading cause of death worldwide in this age group.

Beyond the human and social costs borne by victims and their families, traffic injuries also represent a considerable economic burden. The direct and indirect costs of road accident trauma are estimated to account for most countries around 3% of their gross domestic product (GDP), with a significant proportion being covered by health systems.

There are many risk factors for traffic injuries, but some remain particularly significant. Excessive or inappropriate speed is the main factor. Driving under the influence of psychoactive substances – whether alcohol, drugs or medication, particularly psychotropic drugs – is another major factor. The use of mobile phones while driving, which is a source of distraction, and fatigue are also dangers that must be taken into account.

The growing popularity of micromobility devices, such as electric scooters, increases users’ exposure to road traffic injuries due to their speed, the lack of protective vehicle structures and the limited use of protective equipment. 

While the introduction of autonomous vehicles may have the potential to reduce traffic injuries, it also presents new risks, including cybersecurity vulnerabilities and challenges in safely interacting with pedestrians, cyclists, and human-driven vehicles.

Road infrastructure also plays a key role: poor condition, lack of maintenance or inadequate design – particularly when the most vulnerable users such as pedestrians and two-wheeled vehicles are neglected – increase the likelihood of serious accidents.

Added to these risks is the failure to wear safety equipment such as seat belts, child restraint systems and helmets, which considerably increases the severity of injuries or their consequences in the event of an accident.

Technical vehicle failures, as well as non-compliance with or the absence of basic safety features also contribute to road risk.

In the event of a traffic injury, the speed and quality of medical care are essential both to limit immediate complications and longer-term impacts, particularly functional ones, and to promote full rehabilitation. 

Inequalities in access to emergency services and post-traumatic care remain key factor in preventable deaths, further exacerbating the effects of initial shortcomings.

Action against traffic injuries therefore requires a comprehensive approach based on shared responsibility, inter-sectoral coordination and constant attention to individual and collective vulnerabilities.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

  1. With these considerations in mind, a traffic injury prevention policy should be based on a systemic approach that takes into account human, technical and environmental factors.

The WMA recommends that national and local governments:

  1. Implement the recommendations of the WHO Global status report on road safety of December 2023 and the Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2021–2030, which proposes an integrated approach based on: road and vehicle safety, strengthening legislation, rapid access to emergency care as well as the development and promotion of active and sustainable modes of transport, such as walking, cycling, and public transport.
  1. Adequately resource enforcement of existing legislation.
  1. Promote appropriate personalised medical assessment of driving ability, particularly in cases of proven chronic, neurological, cardiac, psychiatric or metabolic conditions that may affect alertness, reflexes, coordination or perception. Where necessary, these assessments could result in an adjustment in driving licences, for example by restricting night-time driving for certain visual impairments.
  1. Require a medical assessment for any driver involved in an accident related to the use of psychoactive substances before they are allowed to drive again. This assessment should confirm that appropriate treatment is being followed and that the condition is being effectively managed, as a prerequisite for the reinstatement of their driving licence.
  1. Establish and enforce regulatory frameworks and monitoring systems for autonomous vehicles and support the ongoing evaluation of their performance and risks.
  1. Invest significantly to improve the accessibility and efficiency of emergency services and care, as well as rehabilitation services, without neglecting medically underserved areas and to strengthen bystander first-aid training. This requires equitable access to emergency services, emergency care, rehabilitation, and psychological support for victims and their families.
  1. Regularly raise awareness of the need for everyone to keep up-to-date with changes in road traffic regulations.
  1. Strengthen impaired driving laws and their enforcement.
  1. Devote more resources to research concerning vehicle-related injuries and their prevention.
  1. Collect and analyse medical data related to road trauma.
  1. Address the needs of and regulate young and new drivers, as well as older drivers, through multi-sectoral approaches.
  1. Make appropriate vehicular safety equipment compulsory.
  1. Improve vehicle safety standards and regulation.
  1. Require motor vehicle manufacturers to develop effective passive crash protection systems for occupants of motor vehicles and devices to reduce motor vehicle injuries. Before their adoption, industry in partnership with government should demonstrate through field studies that such systems and devices are effective, safe and acceptable to drivers.
  1. Enhance the overall safety of the road infrastructure, including through the review of standards for the construction and maintenance of roads and highways.
  1. Monitor local accident patterns to regulate traffic speeds and take remedial action according to the environment and local accident patterns.

The WMA calls on its Constituent members and physicians to:

  1. Encourage full integration of road safety into public health.
  1. Work with their governments to help translate scientific data into concrete public policies, and to participate actively in the development of prevention policies, including promoting medical education, improved healthcare practices and public awareness.
  1. Encourage the responsible use of different modes of transport by highlighting the benefits of active modes of transport, particularly walking and cycling in suitable and safe areas.
  1. Support research into the interactions between health, medication and driving ability.
  1. Highlight the role of physicians in providing patients with information on driving ability and the impact on driving ability of general health, medical conditions, treatments, and risky behaviours, in strict compliance with medical confidentiality.
  1. Inform and advise patients whose health is recognised as incompatible with driving, whether this requires a temporary suspension or a permanent cessation of driving.

Adopted by the 41st World Medical Assembly, Hong Kong, September 1989
revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and reaffirmed by the 203rd WMA Council Session, Buenos Aires, Argentina, April 2016 

 

PREAMBLE

  1. Biomedical research is essential to the health and well-being of our society. Advances in biomedical research have dramatically improved the quality and prolonged the duration of life throughout the world. However, the ability of the scientific community to continue its efforts to improve personal and public health is being threatened by a movement to eliminate the use of animals in biomedical research. This movement is spearheaded by groups of radical animal rights activists whose views are considered to be far outside mainstream public attitudes and whose tactics range from sophisticated lobbying, fund-raising, propaganda and misinformation campaigns to violent attacks on biomedical research facilities and individual scientists. These violent attacks are carried out by a relatively small number of activists compared with those who use peaceful means of protest, but they have profound and wide-ranging effects.
  2. The magnitude of violent animal rights activities is staggering, and these activities take place in many different parts of the world. Various animal rights groups have claimed responsibility for the bombing of cars, institutions, stores, and the private homes of researchers.
  3. Animal rights violence has had a chilling effect on the scientific community internationally. Scientists, research organizations, and universities have been intimidated into altering or even terminating important research efforts that depend on the use of animals. Laboratories have been forced to divert thousands of research dollars for the purchase of sophisticated security equipment. Young people who might otherwise pursue a career in biomedical research are turning their sights to alternative professions.
  4. Despite the efforts of many groups striving to protect biomedical research from radical animal activism, the response to the animal rights movement has been fragmented, under-funded, and primarily defensive. Many groups within the biomedical community are hesitant to take a public stand about animal activism because of fear of reprisal. As a result, the research establishment has been backed into a defensive posture. Its motivations are questioned, and the need for using animals in research is repeatedly challenged.
  5. While properly designed and executed research involving animals is necessary to enhance the medical care of all persons, we recognize also that humane treatment of research animals must be ensured. Appropriate training for all research personnel should be prescribed and adequate veterinary care should be available. Experiments must comply with any rules or regulations promulgated to govern humane handling, housing, care, treatment and transportation of animals.
  6. International medical and scientific organizations must develop a stronger and more cohesive campaign to counter the growing threat to public health posed by animal activists. Leadership and coordination must be provided. In addition, there must be a clear understanding of the rights of animals who are part of medical research, and the obligations of those who undertake it.

The World Medical Association therefore affirms the following principles:

  1. Animal use in biomedical research is essential for continued medical progress.
  2. The WMA Declaration of Helsinki requires that biomedical research involving human subjects should be based, where appropriate, on animal experimentation, but also requires that the welfare of animals used for research be respected.
  3. Humane treatment of animals used in biomedical research is essential and research facilities should be required to comply with all guiding principles for humane treatment. Education about these principles should be provided to all researchers in training.
  4. Animals should only be used in biomedical research when it is clear that their use is required to achieve an important outcome, and where no other feasible method is available.
  5. Duplication of animal experiments should not occur unless scientifically justified.
  6. The use of animals for the futile testing of cosmetic products and their ingredients, alcohol and tobacco should not be supported.
  7. Although rights to free speech should not be compromised, the anarchistic element among animal right activists should be condemned.
  8. The use of threats, intimidation, violence, and personal harassment of scientists and their families should be condemned internationally.
  9. A maximum coordinated effort from international law enforcement agencies should be sought to protect researchers and research facilities from activities of a terrorist nature.

Adopted by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
Revised by the 68th WMA General Assembly, Chicago, United States, October 2017,
and reaffirmed with minor revisions by the 221st WMA Council Session, Berlin, Germany, October 2022

 

PREAMBLE

Air travel is the preferred mode of long-distance transportation for people across the world. The growing convenience and affordability of air travel has led to an increase in the number of air passengers. In addition, long-duration flights are becoming increasingly common, increasing the risk of in-flight medical emergencies.

The environment in normal passenger planes is not conducive to delivering quality medical care, especially in medical emergencies. Noise and movement of the plane, the very confined space, the presence of other passengers who may be experiencing stress or fear as a result of the situation, the insufficiency or complete lack of diagnostic and therapeutic materials as well as  other factors often create extremely difficult conditions for diagnosis and treatment. Even the most experienced medical professional is likely to be challenged by these circumstances.

Air travel can significantly affect people who suffer from mental health challenges and resources for in-flight mental health emergencies are often lacking.

Most airlines require flight personnel to be trained in basic first aid. In addition, many provide some degree of training beyond this minimum level and may also carry certain emergency medicines and equipment on board. Some carriers even have the capacity to provide remote ECG reading and medical counselling services. The ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) standard requires medical supplies to be carried on airplanes, but the detailed quantity and contents are in non-mandatory recommended practices. Requirements for individual airlines are determined by the national aviation regulatory authorities. Detailed requirements of the cabin crew training program are also determined by the respective national aviation regulatory authority as ICAO standards states that “An operator (airline) shall establish and maintain a training program approved by the State of the operator.”

Even well-trained flight personnel are often limited in their knowledge and experience and cannot offer the same assistance as a physician or other certified health professional. Currently, continuing medical education courses are available to physicians in some locales to train them specifically for in-flight emergencies.

Physicians are often concerned about providing assistance due to uncertainty regarding legal liability. While many airlines provide some liability insurance for medical professionals and lay persons who will provide voluntary assistance during a flight, this is not always the case and even where it does exist, the terms of the insurance cannot always be adequately explained and understood in an acute medical crisis. The financial and professional consequences of litigation against physicians who offer assistance can be very costly, though actual examples of this appear to be quite limited.

Some important steps have been taken to protect the life and health of airline passengers, yet this is far from ideal and still needs improvement. Many of the major problems could be mitigated by simple actions taken by both airlines and national legislatures, ideally in cooperation with one another and with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) to arrive at coordinated and consensus-based international policies and programs.

Constituent Members have an important leadership role to play in promoting measures to improve the availability and efficacy of in-flight medical care.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

The World Medical Association calls on its Constituent Members to advocate for the delivering of quality medical care in air travel, in particular:

Airline companies

  1. To encourage their national airlines companies, especially those providing medium and long-range passenger flights, to take the following specific actions:
  • Equip their airplanes with a sufficient and standardised set of medical emergency materials and drugs that are easily identifiable packaging with instruction in English as well as consideration of other languages, and include Automated External Defibrillators (AED), considered essential equipment in non-professional settings, while ensuring that at least one crew member is competent in the use of that particular AED.
  • Provide stand-by medical assistance, including a mental health component, that can be contacted by radio or telephone to help either the flight attendants or to support a volunteering health professional, if one is on board and willing to assist.
  • Develop medical emergency plans to guide airline personnel in responding to the medical needs of passengers.
  • Provide sufficient medical and organisational instruction to flight personnel, beyond basic first aid training, to enable them to better attend to passenger needs and to assist medical professionals who volunteer their services during emergencies.
  • Provide sufficiently comprehensive insurance for medical professionals and assisting lay personnel to protect them from damages and liabilities (material and non-material) resulting from in-flight diagnosis and treatment.
  • Accept all legal and financial consequences of any assistance provided by a physician, in the absence of legal immunity for physicians.

National authorities

  1. To encourage their national aviation authorities to provide yearly summarised reports of in-flight medical incidents based on mandatory standardised incident reports for every medical incident requiring the administration of first aid or other medical assistance and/or causing a change in flight plans.
  2. To urge their legislators to enact Good Samaritan legislation to guarantee immunity from legal action to physicians who provide appropriate emergency assistance during in-flight medical incidents.
  3. To advocate for the inclusion of potential challenges of in-flight medical emergencies in the ordinary emergency education courses for physicians.

Physicians

  1. To inform physicians of training opportunities or promote the development of training programs where they do not exist;
  2. To encourage physicians to consider whether they wish to identify themselves prior to departure as being willing to help in the event of a medical emergency;
  3. To incite physicians to discuss potential problems with their own patients who are at high risk for requiring in-flight medical attention prior to their flight;
  4. To encourage physicians to determine if their liability insurance includes cover for Samaritan deeds;
  5. To inform and motivate physicians to attend appropriate training programs so they can make informed decisions when declaring their patients fit to travel by air.

International Civil Aviation Organization

The World Medical Association also calls on the ICAO to:

  1. Further develop precise standards in the following areas and, where appropriate, work with governments to implement these standards as legal requirements:
  • Medical equipment and drugs on board medium and long-range flights;
  • Packaging and information materials standards, including multilingual descriptions and instructions in appropriate languages;
  • Medical, inclusive of mental health emergency procedures and training programs for medical personnel.
  1. Define global guidelines guaranteeing physicians immunity from legal action when providing appropriate emergency assistance during in-flight medical incidents and ensure its implementation by its Member States.

 

Adopted by the 47th WMA General Assembly, Bali, Indonesia, September 1995
and revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and by the 67th WMA General Assembly, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2016

 

The health of a community or population is determined by several factors that go beyond traditionally understood causes of disease. Social determinants of health include factors that affect behavioural lifestyle choices; the physical, psychosocial and economic environments in which individuals live; and the health services available to people. Public health involves monitoring, assessing and planning a variety of programs and activities targeted to the identified needs of the population, and the public health sector should have the capacity to carry out those functions effectively to optimise community health. A key tenet of public health policy should be inclusivity and health equity; public health agencies must pay specific attention to populations and communities whose social, economic, and political conditions put them at greater risk of poor health than the general population.

Physicians and their professional associations have an ethical and professional responsibility to act in the best interests of patients at all times. This involves collaboration with public health agencies to integrate medical care of individual patients with a broader promotion of the health of the public.

The key functions of public health agencies are:

1. Health promotion:

  • Working with health care providers to inform and enable the general public to take an active role in preventing and controlling disease, adopting healthful lifestyles, and using medical services appropriately;
  • Assuring that conditions contributing to good health, including high-quality medical services, safe water supplies, good nutrition, an unpolluted atmosphere, and opportunities for exercise and recreation are accessible for the entire population;
  • Working with the responsible public authorities to create healthy public policy and supportive environments in which healthy behavioural choices are the easy choices, and to develop human and social capital.
  • Prevention: assuring access to screening and other preventive services and curative care to the entire population.

2. Protection: monitoring and protecting the health of communities against communicable diseases and exposure to toxic environmental pollutants, occupational hazards, harmful products, and poor quality health services. This function includes the need to set priorities, establish essential programs, obtain requisite resources and assure the availability of necessary public health laboratory services.

3. Surveillance: identifying outbreaks of infectious disease and patterns of chronic disease and injury and establishing appropriate control or prevention programs;

4. Population Health Assessment: assessing community health needs and marshalling the resources for responding to them, and developing health policy in response to specific community and national health needs.

The specific programs and activities carried out in each jurisdiction (local or national) will depend on the problems and needs identified, the organization of the health care delivery system, the types and scope of the partnerships developed and the resources available to address the identified needs.

Public health agencies benefit greatly from the support and close cooperation of physicians and their professional associations. The health of a community or a nation is measured by the health of all its residents, and the preventable health problems that affect an individual person affect the health and resources of the community. The effectiveness of many public health programs, therefore, depends on the active collaboration of physicians and their professional associations with public health agencies and other governmental and nongovernmental agencies.

The medical sector and the public health sector should effectively co-operate on the dissemination of public health information and education programs that promote healthful lifestyles and reduce preventable risks to health, including those from the use of tobacco, alcohol and other drugs; sexual activities that increase the risk of HIV transmission and sexually transmitted diseases; poor diet and physical inactivity; and inadequate childhood immunization levels. For example, health education can substantially reduce infant morbidity and mortality (e.g. through the promotion of breast-feeding and providing nutrition education to parents together with providing supportive conditions, both at work and in the community).

The formal responsibility of public health agencies is primarily disease surveillance, investigation and control. These activities cannot be conducted effectively, however, without the active cooperation and support of physicians at the community level who are aware of individual and community illness patterns and can notify health authorities promptly of problems that might require further investigation and action. For example, physicians can help identify populations at high risk for particular diseases, such as tuberculosis, and report cases of communicable diseases such as measles, whooping cough, or infectious causes of diarrhoea, as well as cases of exposure to lead or other toxic chemicals and substances in the community or work place. Close collaboration between public health agencies and physicians as well as other health professionals is critical for an efficient disease monitoring system.

Regardless of the effectiveness of existing public health programs in a jurisdiction, professional medical associations should be aware of unmet health needs in their communities and nations and advocate for activities, programs and resources to meet those needs. These efforts might be in areas of public education for health promotion and disease prevention; monitoring and controlling environmental hazards; identifying and publicising adverse health effects resulting from social problems, such as interpersonal violence or social practices that affect health; or identifying and advocating for services such as improvements in emergency treatment preparedness.

In jurisdictions in which basic public health services are not being provided adequately, medical associations must work with other health agencies and groups to establish priorities for advocacy and action. For example, in a country or area with limited resources in which potable water and sewage facilities are not available to most residents, these needs should be given priority over medical technologies that would provide service to only a small portion of the population.

Some health-related issues are extremely complex and involve multiple levels of response. For example, those diagnosed with high blood lead levels need not only appropriate medical treatment, but the source of contamination must also be determined, and measures need to be taken to eliminate the danger. At times policies that promote public health create concern because of their potential economic impact. For example, strong opposition to the potential economic impact of tobacco control policies could come from regions or groups that derive significant revenue from growing or processing tobacco. However, economic concerns should not deter a strong public health advocacy program against the use of tobacco products. The promotion of tobacco products should be rigorously opposed, and every effort should be made to reduce tobacco consumption in both developed and developing countries.

Physicians and their associations should collaborate with political authorities and other organizations to encourage the media to send positive messages for health education regarding diet, drug use, sexually transmitted diseases, cardiovascular risk, etc.

Medical associations should ask their members to educate their patients on the availability of public health services.

Adopted by the 47th WMA General Assembly, Bali, Indonesia, September 1995
and revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006,
by the 66th WMA General Assembly, Moscow, Russia, October 2015
and by the 77th WMA General Assembly, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, October 2026

 

PREAMBLE

To achieve the highest standard of health, mental health and well-being must be valued, funded and supported equally with physical health. Well-being is defined herein as a complex combination of a person’s physical, mental, emotional and social health factors. Over one billion people live with a mental illness making it one of the largest contributors to the global burden of disease.

Anxiety and depressive disorders remain the most prevalent and rates continue to rise. Globally, over 700,000 people die from suicide each year[1]. Mental health and well-being should be treated as a public health priority and human rights imperative, reflected in parity in funding, access and outcomes.

The adoption in 2006 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities constituted a major step towards equality for all people. It aims to promote, protect and reinforce the human rights and dignity of all persons with disabilities, including those with mental health conditions. As early as 1966 the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights3 addressed the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.

The identification of mental health and wellbeing for accelerated implementation of the World Health Organisation (WHO) 13th General Programme of Work (GPW13) constituted a major step in reaching mental health parity[2]. The WHO warns that changing social and environmental factors, such as poverty, violence, inequality and environmental deprivation, can increase the risk of experiencing mental health conditions. The use of psychoactive substances can also contribute to their onset or exacerbate their progression. The inclusion of mental health as part of universal health coverage is now being raised as an important necessity.

In a call to action, the WHO and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) envisioned a world where everyone can lead healthy lives and have access to affordable, high-quality mental health services that use a mental health paradigm based on rights, centered around each person; and where persons with mental health conditions and psychosocial disabilities can fully engage in their own recovery and participate in all areas of life. In 2023 a joint WHO-OHCHR publication was developed to assist countries in adopting, amending, or implementing legislation related to mental health and wellbeing. Specifically, the guidance encourages the integration of mental health into general legislation rather than the adoption of mental health-specific laws. Where a stand-alone law already exists, it should be reviewed by countries to prevent separate or distinct regulation and ensure protection of patient rights and anti-discrimination.

This statement takes a broader view, beyond the biomedical paradigm of diagnosis, medication and symptom reduction, and takes account of central ethical responsibilities, social determinants including the social, economic and physical environments people are exposed to. Structural social determinants including poverty, homelessness, discrimination, unemployment, inequality, inadequate access to education and healthcare, and involvement in the criminal justice system significantly increase the risk of mental health conditions. Environmental and life-experience factors including violent conflict, forced displacement, early childhood trauma and human rights violations contribute substantially to the global mental health burden. The mental health effects of war and armed conflict, as well as the resulting forced displacement, are evident in many regions of the world. These effects include mental illnesses such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), adjustment disorder, psychosis, and substance dependence. Civilians, especially those who have experienced life-threatening events, are at risk for PTSD. Digital environments that promote social comparison, harmful content, or social disconnection also contribute to the global mental health burden.

Therefore, an appropriate paradigm should also cover trauma-informed, recovery-oriented, and community-based approaches and address social determinants through intersectoral collaboration.

People with serious and chronic mental health conditions often have significant needs because they are more likely to live in circumstances of discrimination and vulnerability. They also commonly experience other co-morbidities. They have the same right to health care as any other patient, including equal access to preventive services and therapeutic interventions aimed at promoting health and treating non-psychiatric conditions and to medical imaging services, given the organic basis of certain disorders. The rapid expansion of digital mental health tools, telepsychiatry, and AI-enabled decision support, parallel to some benefits, introduces new ethical risks related to privacy, autonomy, algorithmic bias, and clinical accountability. Valid informed consent, data minimisation, and safeguards against discriminatory secondary use are essential.

The development and deployment of commercial algorithms designed to exploit psychiatric vulnerabilities or emotional states for profit should be prohibited, and strict regulations should be imposed against the unauthorised secondary use or monetisation of mental health data by third-party digital platforms.

Health care professionals have the same ethical obligations to all patients, including those patients with mental health conditions, for whom some ethical obligations have particular weight and importance.

The physician’s primary obligation is to the health and well-being of the patient. Where there is an imminent and serious risk of significant harm to the patient or others, disclosure of confidential information without the patient’s consent may be necessary to safeguard a significant and overriding ethical obligation, after all other possible solutions have been exhausted and in keeping with the International Code of Medical Ethics.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

The World Medical Association encourages all medical associations, governments, policy makers and other stakeholders as well as physicians and other health care personnel to: 

Fulfil ethical obligations to patients affected by mental health conditions

  1. Particular attention should be paid to the assessment of decision-making capacity, the use of appropriate consent mechanisms, and protection against undue influence.
  1. Physicians should ensure patient treatment in accordance with the principles of the International Code of Medical Ethics and the WMA Declaration of Lisbon.
  1. When conducting research involving patients affected by mental health conditions, physicians are duty-bound by the Declaration of Helsinki principles. Patients with mental health conditions should be meaningfully included in research design, oversight, and dissemination in line with the provisions of the CIOMS International Ethical Guidelines for Health-related Research Involving Humans.
  1. The collection, storage and use of health data of patients affected by mental health conditions must follow the Declaration of Taipei principles.

Elevate Mental Health to Equal Priority with Physical Health

  1. Treat mental health and well-being as integral to achieving the highest standard of health.
  1. Ensure mental health is embedded in all public health strategies and policies.
  1. Ensure that patients with mental illness have equal access to the full continuum of physical health care, including screening, diagnosis, referral, and treatment and that clinical assessments are not distorted by diagnostic overshadowing. 
  1. Ensure that medical confidentiality is upheld, as it constitutes a fundamental safeguard of patients’ rights and an essential element of the relationship of trust between physicians and their patients.

Integrate Mental Health into Universal Health Coverage

  1. Make high-quality, affordable mental health services available to all.
  1. Provide care that is rights-based, patient-centred, and empowers individuals in their recovery, including access to peer support, psychosocial interventions and shared decision-making.
  1. Advocate for the provision of adequate funding, capacity building, and protection of mental health budgets from reallocation. 

Address Social Determinants of Mental Health

  1. Encourage governments to address the social and commercial determinants of mental ill health such as adequate housing, good-quality employment and our surroundings.
  1. Recognise and respond to the impacts of war and violent conflict, displacement, environmental change, and other global crises on mental health.
  1. Promote protected time for training for healthcare workers to recognise and navigate these social barriers effectively.
  1. Work to strengthen patient autonomy by implementing measures that reinforce the patients’ own decision-making capacity.
  1. Urge governments and policymakers to establish robust, evidence-based legislative frameworks and regulatory safeguards – similar to emerging international models – to manage and restrict youth access to harmful digital platforms and social media algorithms, thereby fulfilling a public health and state obligation to protect developing minds from digital exploitation and systemic mental health risks. 

Shift from a Narrow Biomedical Model to holistic care 

  1. Develop early intervention programs, including school-based programs, to address the rise in youth mental health conditions.
  1. Any measure involving care without consent must be strictly necessary and proportionate to the circumstances of the person concerned. It may only be implemented for a limited period, under the supervision of a judge and subject to regular medical reassessment.
  1. Guard against harm from over-medicalisation: be mindful of medication side effects, over-treatment, and interventions that may worsen mental health. Ensure that early intervention is evidence-based and does not pathologise normal distress.

Protect and Promote Human Rights in the Treatment of Mental Health

  1. Align national mental health laws with WHO–OHCHR guidance.
  1. Integrate mental health and wellbeing provisions into general legislation rather than relying solely on mental health–specific laws.
  1. Respect patients’ right to make decisions about their own care, including the right to refuse treatment.
  1. For children and adolescents, ensure consent processes are developmentally appropriate: seek the young person’s assent, give due weight to their views according to age and maturity, and – where parental or guardian consent is legally required – involve parents/guardians while preserving the young person’s confidentiality to the greatest extent compatible with safety and legal obligations. Assess decision-making capacity on a case-by-case basis and do not infer incapacity solely from age, diagnosis, or disability.
  1. Actively minimise the use of non-consensual and coercive practices, such as involuntary admission and mechanical restraints, ensuring they are used only as an absolute last resort under strict, time-limited, and independent human rights and legal oversight.
  1. Legal capacity: Patients living with mental health conditions have the right to exercise their legal capacity on an equal basis with others. Make supported decision-making available, including the use of advance directives and the involvement of a person of trust where the patient so wishes, and ensure that any recourse to substitute decision-making is exceptional, proportionate, limited in time and subject to independent review.
  1. Wherever involuntary treatment or compulsory hospitalisation is permitted under national law, ensure that it is subject to strict procedural and substantive safeguards including a least-restrictive-option requirement, independent judicial review, the right to legal representation, and regular review and that supported decision-making alternatives are developed and promoted. The WMA opposes the use of involuntary treatment as a default response to mental health conditions and calls for progressive reduction of coercive practices.
  1. Where a patient’s decision-making capacity is affected, involve supported or substitute decision-makers who act in the patient’s best interest and reflect the patient’s own values and preferences.
  1. Promote the recognition and use of psychiatric advance directives, allowing individuals to express their treatment preferences in advance of a potential loss of decision-making capacity, and establish supported decision-making frameworks as an alternative to substituted judgment. Use involuntary treatment only when legally authorised, ethically justified, and with the least restrictive approach possible.
  1. Approach ethically complex end-of-life situations with due care and in accordance with applicable law and professional guidance.
  1. Protect physicians and healthcare professionals from legal penalisation, criminalisation, or political interference when providing evidence-based, compassionate, and ethically sound mental health care to historically marginalised populations, including gender-diverse and LGBTQ+ individuals.
  1. Professional boundaries: Maintain professional boundaries and avoid dual relationships – financial, supervisory, intimate, or dependency-creating – that could impair clinical judgment.
  1. Minimise stigma: Actively minimise stigma: avoid language or actions that reinforce prejudice or discrimination against people living with mental health conditions.

Strengthen Global and National Commitment to Mental Health Care

  1. Recognise mental health and well-being as a public health priority and a human rights imperative.

Foster Education, Health Workforce and Research in Mental Health Treatment

  1. Include the appropriate knowledge and skills in medical schools, residencies, and other training programs to enable graduates to recognise, diagnose, and treat mental health conditions including depression, either as the chief complaint or with another general medical condition. Practising physicians providing clinical care should acquire and maintain the same knowledge and skills.
  2. Strengthen initial and continuing physician education by integrating the social, environmental and cultural determinants of mental health, as well as the skills needed for identification, support and interdisciplinary work.
  1. Provide adequate training and institutional support for physicians and frontline health care professionals to ensure safe, ethical, and non-discriminatory care, particularly in high-pressure and resource-limited clinical settings.
  1. Ensure an adequate supply of psychiatrists and other specialist mental health professionals, while also building the capacity of primary care physicians and community health workers to identify, assess, and manage mental health conditions, particularly in rural, and underserved settings.
  1. Support additional research involving patients with mental health conditions, in accordance with established ethical standards and safeguards.

Recognise the Importance of Physician Mental Health

  1. Mandate institutional accountability to provide safe working conditions, manageable workloads, and accessible psychological support systems for health care workers, in alignment with the WMA Statement on Physician Mental Health Care and the WMA Statement on Physician Well-Being, recognising that structural reforms are essential to prevent professional burnout. 

Protect the Rights in the Digital Era

  1. Telepsychiatry may be used when clinically appropriate, acceptable to the patient, and in the patient’s best interests, including to improve access for patients facing geographical, mobility, disability-related, language, stigma, security, or resource barriers. It should include informed consent, reliable identification of patient and physician, privacy and data protection safeguards, clear clinical accountability, emergency and referral pathways, and access to in-person assessment when clinically necessary or preferred by the patient.
  2. Patients have the right to be informed when artificial intelligence or automated decision-support tools are used in their assessment, diagnosis or treatment, and to a meaningful human review of any resulting decision. Such tools should be validated, monitored for bias and used in a manner that protects privacy; clinical responsibility remains with the physician and may not be delegated to an automated system.

 

[1] World mental health report: transforming mental health for all, World Health Organization, 2022

[2] The WHO Special Initiative for Mental Health (2019-2023)

Adopted by the 40th World Medical Assembly, Vienna, Austria, September 1988
and revised by the 57th WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, October 2006
and by the 68th WMA General Assembly, Chicago, United States, October 2017

 

PREAMBLE

1.      Health is not simply the absence of illness, but is also more than a state of physical, psychological and social flourishing, and includes an individual’s ability to adapt to physical, social and mental adversity. It is affected by many factors, including access to health care and especially the Social Determinants of Health (SDH), and its restoration is similarly multidimensional. Society has an obligation to make access to an adequate level of care available to all its members, regardless of ability to pay.

2.      Health care professionals regularly confront the effects of lack of access to adequate care and health inequality and have a corresponding responsibility to contribute their expertise to work with governments at local, regional and national levels to ensure they understand the Social Determinants of Health and integrate reduction of factors leading to inequality into all policies. Health care policies should suggest ways to eliminate health inequality.

3.      Access to health care is an important factor in reducing the short, medium and long term consequences of poor health, caused by adverse social and other conditions.  Access is itself multidimensional, and is constrained by factors including health human resources, training, finance, transportation, geographical availability, freedom of choice, public education, quality assurance and technology.

GUIDELINES

Health care workers

4.         The delivery of health care is highly dependent upon the availability of trained health care workers. The training should not only include socio-medical competencies, but particularly emphasize an understanding of how the social determinants of health affect people’s health outcomes.

The distribution of health care workers varies widely as do the demographics in most countries, where an ageing population forms a huge challenge for the years to come. There is global mal-distribution. While all countries train health care workers, global movement, especially from less to better developed countries, is leading to continuing shortages. The development of ethical recruitment codes may help to reduce inappropriate recruitment activities by states. Ethical recruitment codes should also be applied to commercial recruitment agencies.

5.      Research is needed to determine the best mix of different health care workers for different clinical settings to meet the needs of populations. Mal-distribution within countries should be addressed by seeking methods of attracting health care workers to rural and remote areas, or other underserved regions, at least for a part of their careers. Innovative concepts should be explored to make working in underserved areas interesting; punitive and coercive recruiting methods must not be used. Recruiting students who express a wish to return to their home area may help to alleviate this problem.

Training

6.      Primary training of health care workers has to be appropriate, accessible and of good quality, which makes the training costly, with the country of origin meeting this cost. Workers move to continue with secondary training, including higher professional training and specialisation for physicians, and also to earn more money that may be remitted home to support the family and community.

7.      The ambition for self-improvement is understandable; efforts to increase retention of health care workers should include consideration of encouraging a return to the home country, with use of the new skills and knowledge to improve health care access.

8.      Countries should not actively recruit from other states. Even when they do so passively, this recruitment should take place in accordance with ethical standards and the WMA Statement on Ethical Guidelines for the International Migration of Health Care workers.

Finance

9.      Access to care is essential for the whole population. Methods of financing care are for each country to decide, according to their own resources, health and social priorities, and health needs. Countries should develop revenue systems that reduce reliance on out-of-pocket payments and private health insurance as these increase inequalities between population groups.

10.    No single system of finance is ideal for every country; the exact balance needs to be locally decided. In making decision about financing systems governments must understand the essential nature of health care, the absolute requirement that it be available to all, based upon clinical need and not on the ability to pay, and that access can be constrained by financial fears. Eligibility for care does not ensure access, especially if co-payment schemes exclude those with the fewest financial resources.

11.    Innovative means should be used to provide comprehensive health care, including partnerships with private providers and commercial entities, who may be able to provide elements of specialised care. In doing so states must ensure that this does not limit specialised care to the wealthiest proportion of their population nor should this be seen as a preference for a private health care model.

12.    Decisions to limit access to elements of health care should be done on the basis of objective information, based on the best available scientific data about the efficacy and safety of health care services. It must include public debate about, and acceptance of, the concepts involved. Nothing should be introduced which discriminates against the elderly or vulnerable populations.

13.    The public should have access to clear information on the health care resources available to them and how they may be accessed. Specific processes should be established to ensure that poverty or illiteracy will never be a barrier to access care.

Vulnerable and hard to reach people

14.    There are groups of people in every country who are hard to reach with health care messages, and who often seek health care late in the progress of disease.

15.    A variety of methods should be used to ensure hard to reach people are aware of the availability of health care, without direct cost, including methods to reduce fear and other barriers to access.

16.    Where specific vulnerabilities such as learning disabilities or sensory impairments exist, solutions should include identifying and dealing with those vulnerabilities.

17.    Health care workers have a duty to provide care that is free from any form of unfair discrimination.

Transportation

18.    Health care facilities should be situated in locations that are easy to access. This may mean working with local transportation providers to ensure formal and informal public transport routes pass the facilities. Consideration should be made to making health care facilities more accessible by active transport methods. Especially in rural and remote locations, patients may travel considerable distances to attend the facilities.

19.    Patients who need referral to secondary and specialized care should be provided with access to transportation. Those needing help with accessing primary care should also receive support. Transportation should also be offered to isolated rural patients who require a level of care that can be found only in metropolitan medical centres. Telemedicine can sometimes be an acceptable substitute for transportation of patients.

Geographical availability

20.    Working with other health providers, including traditional birth attendants, may provide assistance. They should be integrated into the health care system, offered training, and be assisted to offer care that is safe and effective and that includes referral where necessary. This does not extend to the state health care system providing or funding care which is not evidence based, including so-called complementary therapies.

Freedom of choice

21.    The freedom to choose care providers, and the options of care they offer is an essential element of care in every system. It requires the ability to understand that choice, and the freedom to choose a provider from among alternatives.

22.    Barriers to freedom of choice may lie in access to financial resources, understanding of the options, and in cultural geographic, or other factors. Access to information about the available options is crucial in making an appropriately informed choice.

23.    The health authorities should ensure that all populations understand how to access care, and should seek to ensure that populations have access to objective information about the availability of different health care suppliers.

24.    Once individuals access care through a particular provider or physician they should be given opportunities to consider the clinical options open to them; access to systematically available information resources is an essential element supporting choice.

Public education

25.    General education is a determinant of health; the better educated a person is, generally the better their health likelihood.  When ill-health presents, prior education may be a determinant of the speed at which the person accesses health care. Education also aids individuals to make appropriate choices about the care options they access.

26.    Specific education about health matters can be an important adjunct to lifestyle planning. While education alone does not, for example, stop people from smoking, using drugs or alcohol, it can aid in decision making about risk behaviour.

27.    A general level of health literacy assists patients to make choices among different options for treatment, and to comply or co-operate with the requirements of that treatment. It will also improve self-care and the appropriateness of self-referral.

28.    Educational programs that assist people in making informed choices about their personal health and about the appropriate uses of both self-care and professional care should be established. These programs should include information about the costs and benefits associated with alternative courses of treatment within the context of modern medicine; the use of professional services that permit early detection and treatment or prevention of illnesses; personal responsibilities in preventing illnesses; and the effective use of the health care system. Physicians should actively participate, wherever appropriate, in such educational efforts and must be provided with adequate resources to enable them to undertake such education.

29.    Public education also assists governments by increasing understanding of public health measures, including taxation of tobacco, banning of human consumption of some products, and restrictions on individual freedoms because of health concerns. When legislative or other regulatory mechanisms are to be imposed by governments, a campaign of public education and explanation must be undertaken to gain public understanding and voluntary compliance.

Quality assurance

30.       Quality assurance mechanisms should be part of every system of health care delivery. Physicians share responsibility for assuring the quality of health care and must not allow other considerations to jeopardize the quality of care provided.

Technology

31.    Technology is playing an increasing role in the provision of health care services. Capital purchase prices are high because of the need for specific logistical services, including skilled technicians and adequate facilities.  Advanced technologies are not available in all locales; access to their benefits must be well planned to ensure they benefit all patients in need, not simply those local to advanced technology centres.

Extraordinary circumstances

32.    In extraordinary circumstances, including armed conflicts and major natural events such as earthquakes, physicians have a specific duty to ensure that policy makers protect access to care, especially for those most vulnerable and least able to move to more secure areas.

RECOMMENDATIONS

33.    Social Determinants of Health greatly affect access to health care as well as directly impacting on health. Physicians should work with governments to ensure they are able to take effective action on SDH.

34.    Access to health care requires systematic consideration to ensure appropriate conditions are met. These include:

34.1  Having an appropriate, universal, solidaristic and equitable health system, adequately resourced facilities, being available throughout a country, providing health centers and their professional staff with sufficient and sustainable financing, with individuals being treated on the basis of need and not on the ability to pay.

34.2  Patient choice should include which facility to access.

34.3  Access to adequate information for all is essential for making choices and for co-operating with health care providers.

34.4  Education is both a social determinant and a key factor in co-operation with health care provision, fostering responsible self-care with accessible support.

34.5  Health care professionals should be free to move around the world, especially to access educational and professional opportunities. This mobility must not damage resource availability, especially in resource poor countries.

34.6  Physicians must be provided with transparent and efficient ethical criteria for working in overcrowded or underserved areas.

34.7  Provision of health care requires action by government at all levels, working with populations to ensure that people understand the benefit of this care and are able to access it.

34.8  Physicians have an important role in ensuring that health care planning makes clinical sense, is communicated well to the population being served, and that patients are not endangered by inadequate resources, poor planning or other system flaws.

34.9  Physicians are aware of the health system and this forces them to play a socially conscious role regarding the social determinants of health and access to health care by themselves or through their representative medical associations.

34.10   Medical associations should work with their members to promote access to health care systems that equitably support the needs of populations.

 

Adopted by the 41st World Medical Assembly Hong Kong, September 1989
and rescinded at the WMA General Assembly, Pilanesberg, South Africa, 2006

PREAMBLE

The prospect of therapeutically effective fetal tissue transplants for disorders such as diabetes and Parkinson’s disease has raised new questions in the ethical discussion on fetal research. These questions are distinct from those addressed in the 1970s that focused on invasive procedures performed by some researchers on living, viable fetuses. They are also separate from the questions that were raised by the development of new techniques for prenatal diagnosis such as fetoscopy and chorionic villus sampling. Although the use of transplanted tissue from a fetus after spontaneous or induced abortion would appear to be analogous to the use of cadaver tissue and organs, the moral issue for many is the possibility that the decision to have an abortion will become coupled with the decision to donate fetal tissue for the transplantation procedure itself.

The utilization of human fetal tissue for transplantations is, for the most part, based upon a large body of research data derived from experimental animal models. At this time, the number of such transplants performed has been relatively small but the various applications are promising avenues of clinical investigation for certain disorders. The demand for fetal tissue transplantation for neural or pancreatic cell engrafments may be expected to increase if further clinical studies conclusively show that this procedure provides long-term reversal of neural or endrocrine deficits.

Prominent among the currently identified ethical concerns is the potential for fetal transplants to influence a woman’s decision to have an abortion. These concerns are based, at least in part, on the possibility that some women may wish to become pregnant for the sole purpose of aborting the fetus and either donating the tissue to a relative or selling the tissue for financial gain. Others suggest that a woman who is ambivalent about a decision to have an abortion might be swayed by arguments about the good that could be achieved if she opts to terminate the pregnancy. These concerns demand the prohibition of:

  1. the donation of fetal tissue to designated recipients;
  2. the sale of such tissue; and
  3. the request for consent to use the tissue for transplantation before a final decision regarding abortion has been made.

The abortion process may also be influenced inappropriately by the physician. Consequently, measures must be taken to assure that decisions to donate fetal tissue for transplantation do not affect either the techniques used to induce the abortion or the timing of the procedure itself with respect to the gestational age of the fetus. Also to avoid conflict of interest, physicians and other health care personnel involved in performing abortions should not receive any direct or indirect benefit from the research or transplantation use of tissues derived from the aborted fetus. The retrieval and preservation of usable tissue cannot become the primary focus of abortion. Therefore, members of the transplant team should not influence or participate in the abortion process.

There is a potential commercial gain for those involved in the retrieval, storage, testing, preparation, and delivery of fetal tissues. Providing fetal tissue by nonprofit mechanisms designated to cover costs only would reduce the possibility of direct or indirect influence on a woman to acquire her consent for donation of the aborted fetal remains.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The World Medical Association affirms that the use of fetal tissue for transplantation purposes is still in an experimental stage and should only be ethically permissible when:

  1. The World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki and the Declaration on Human Organ Transplantation are followed, as they pertain to the donor and the recipient of the fetal tissue transplant.
  2. Fetal tissue is provided in a manner consistent with the World Medical Association Statement on Live Organ Trade and that such tissue not be provided in exchange for financial remuneration above that which is necessary to cover reasonable expenses.
  3. The recipient of the tissue is not designated by the donor.
  4. A final decision regarding abortion is made before initiating discussion of the transplantation use of fetal tissue. Absolute independence is established and guaranteed between the medical team performing the abortion and the team using the fetus for therapeutic purposes.
  5. Decision concerning the timing of the abortion is based on the state of health of the mother, and of the fetus. Decisions regarding the technique used to induce abortion, as well as the timing of the abortion in relation to the gestational age of the fetus, are based on concern for the safety of the pregnant woman.
  6. Health care personnel involved in the termination of a particular pregnancy do not participate in or receive any benefit from the transplantation of tissue from the abortus of the same pregnancy.
  7. Informed consent on behalf of both the donor and the recipient is obtained in accordance with applicable law.

Adopted by the 67th WMA General Assembly, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2016
and rescinded and archived by the 76th WMA General Assembly, Porto, Portugal, October 2025

PREAMBLE

Childhood obesity is a serious medical condition and a major public health concern affecting many children.  Childhood obesity is emerging as a growing epidemic and is a challenge in both developed and developing countries.  Due to its increasing prevalence and its immediate and long-term impact on health, including predisposition to diabetes and cardiovascular abnormalities, childhood obesity should be viewed as a serious concern for public health. The increase in childhood obesity may be attributed to many factors:

  • Recent studies show that marketing targeted at children has a wide influence on the shopping trends and food preferences of households all over the world. Special offers, short-term price reductions and other price promotions and advertising on social as well as traditional media all play a role in increasing product demand.
  • Many advertisements are in conflict with nutritional recommendations of medical and scientific bodies. TV advertisements for food and drink products with little or no nutritional value are often scheduled for broadcast hours with a large concentration of child viewers and are intended to promote the desire to consume these products regardless of hunger. Advertisements increase children’s emotional response to food and exploit their trust. These methods and techniques are also used in non-traditional media, such as social networks, video games and websites aimed at children.
  • Unhealthy dietary patterns, together with a sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise, contribute to childhood obesity.  The sedentary lifestyle is the most predominant one in the developed world today. Many children typically spend more time than ever in front of screens, rarely engaging in physical activities.
  • International corporations and conglomerates that manufacture foods and beverages are not always subject to regional regulations that govern food labeling. Concern for profits may come at the expense of corporate responsibility for environmental and public health issues.
  • Products containing large amounts of added sugar, fat, and salt can be addictive, especially when combined with flavor enhancers. In some countries, not all ingredients are required to be listed on food labels and manufacturers often refuse to release data on methods employed to maximize consumption of their products.  Governments should require that all ingredients in food and beverages be clearly labeled, including those proprietary ingredients intended to increase consumption of the product.
  • Socioeconomic disparities also correlate with increasing rates of childhood obesity. The link between living in poverty and early childhood obesity continues to negatively affect health in adult life.[1] Exposure to environmental contaminants, sporadic medical checkups, insufficient access to nutritious foods and limited physical activity lead to obesity and other chronic illnesses that are all more prevalent among children living in poverty.

RECOMMENDATIONS

  1. A comprehensive program is needed to prevent and address obesity in all segments of the population, with a specific focus on children.  The approach must include initiatives on price and availability of nutritious foods, access to education, advertising and marketing, information, labeling and other areas specific to regions and countries.  An approach similar to that on tobacco in the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control is advocated.
  2. International studies stress the importance of adopting an integrated approach to education and health promotion.  Investment in education is key to minimizing poverty, improving health and providing economic benefits.
  3. Quality education offered in formal settings to children aged 2 to 3 years, combined with enrichment activities for parents, and sufficient supply of nutritious food and beverages may help to reduce the rate of adolescent obesity and reduce its health implications throughout the life course. Developing early healthy eating practices and experiencing flavors of healthy food when very young appear to be positive factors in prevention of childhood obesity.
  4. Governments should invest in education related to menu design, food shopping including budget setting, storage and preparation so that people are better equipped to plan their food intake.
  5. Governments should seek to regulate the availability of food and beverages of poor nutritional value, by a range of methods including price.  Attention should be paid to the availability close to schools of establishments selling products of poor nutritional quality.  Governments should seek to persuade manufacturers to reformulate products to reduce their obesogenic effects.  Where possible government and local authorities should seek to manage the density of such establishments in the area.
  6. Governments should consider imposing a tax on non-nutritious foods and sugary drinks and use the additional revenue to fund research and epidemiological studies aimed at preventing childhood obesity and reducing the resulting disease risk.
  7. Ministries of health and education should regulate food and beverages that are sold and served at educational and healthcare facilities.
  8. Given the scientifically proven link between the extent of media consumption and adverse effects on body weight in children, the WMA recommends that the advertising of non-nutritious products be restricted during television programming and other forms of media that appeal to children.  Regulators should be aware that children access television programs designed for adults and ensure that legislation and regulation also limits marketing associated with such programs.
  9. Governments should work with independent health experts to produce sound guidance on food and nutrition, with no involvement of the food and drink industry.
  10. Governments and local authorities should subsidize and encourage activities that promote good health among their residents, including providing safe spaces for walking, bike riding and other forms of physical activity. 
  11. Parents have a crucial role in fostering physical activity in their children. Schools should incorporate daily physical activity into their daily routine.  Participation in sport activities should be possible for everyone regardless of their economic situation.
  12. National Medical Associations should support or develop guidelines and recommendations to ensure that they reflect current knowledge of prevention and treatment of childhood obesity.
  13. National Medical Associations should work to raise public awareness on the issue of childhood obesity and highlight the need to tackle the rising prevalence of obesity and its health and economic burden.
  14. Clinics and Health Maintenance Organizations should employ appropriately trained professionals to offer classes and consultation in selecting appropriate amounts of nutritious foods and beverages and attaining optimal levels of physical activity for children.  They should also ensure that their premises are exemplars in the provision of healthy food options.
  15. Educational facilities should employ appropriately trained professionals who educate for healthy lifestyles from an early age and allow all children, whatever their social environment, to practice regular physical activities.
  16. Physicians should guide parents and children in how to live healthy lives and emphasize the importance of doing so, and must identify as soon as possible obesity in their patients, particularly children. They should direct patients suffering from obesity to the appropriate services at the earliest possible stage, and conduct regular follow-ups.
  17. Physicians and health professionals should be educated in nutrition assessment, obesity prevention and treatment. This could be accomplished by strengthening CME activities focused on nutritional medicine.

[1] WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health (Closing the Gap in a Generation) 2008.